The history of Ancient Persia (although it is more correct to call it Iran (that is what it is called in the sources of that time); the name 'Persia' was coined by the Greeks) begins with the conquests of Cyrus II. But you can’t immediately move on to his accomplishments; first you need to find out who this Cyrus was?

First mentions of Persia

The first mentions of Persia are found in Assyrian sources of the 9th century BC. It is known that this was a tribal union in the southwest of modern Iran, led by a noble Achaemenid family. A century later, they began to expand their possessions, but after Assyria established itself in these lands, they recognized the power of their king. Later, the Persians came under the authority of King Astyages, the ruler of the Median state. He gave his daughter in marriage to Cambyses I, the ruler of the Persians. From this union the son Cyrus I the Great was born.

The Legend of Cyrus

Nothing precise can be said about Cyrus’s childhood. However, there is a legend. One day, King Astyages had a dream that a tree was growing from the womb of his daughter and covering all the Median lands with its crowns. The priests interpreted this dream in such a way that the son born to his daughter would seize power from his grandfather. Astyages was frightened and ordered his courtier Harpagus to abandon the infant Cyrus I in the forests of Media. He, in turn, ordered the shepherd Mithridad to take the child to the forest. But to Mithridar and his wife was born dead child, they could not leave Cyrus in the forests. They decided to put their stillborn son in Cyrus’s cradle and raise the prince as their own.

The truth was revealed when Cyrus was ten years old. He played with the sons of the courtiers and was elected king among them. One of the boys refused to obey him, so he beat him. The boy's father complained to Astyages that the shepherd's son dared to beat his master. Cyrus was taken to the palace. Seeing him, Astyages realized that his grandson was alive. He turned to the priests again. But they assured him that the dream had already come true - the boy was elected king among his peers. Having calmed down, the king of Media sent him to his parents in Persia.

Revolt of Cyrus and capture of provinces

Cyrus rebelled against Media in 553 BC. Most of the Medes voluntarily went over to Cyrus's side. By 550 BC. Media was conquered. Next, Cyrus began to conquer its provinces: Susa (Elam), Parthia, Hyrcania and Armenia. In 547 BC. Cyrus launched an attack on the Lydian kingdom. The first battle near the Halys River ended in nothing; the second time Cyrus showed cunning and placed camels in front of his army. The Lydian horses, sensing an unfamiliar smell, fled from the battlefield.

Then Cyrus subjugated the entire Asia Minor coast. And he turned his gaze towards the Eastern Iranian and Central Asian territories: Afghanistan, the northwestern part of India, Pakistan, Drangiana, Margiana, Bactria, Arachosia, Gandhara, Hydrosia, Khorezm and Sogdiana. Miletus and the rest of the countries up to Egypt voluntarily submitted to Cyrus. Moreover, Phoenician, Babylonian and Asia Minor merchants advocated for the creation of a strong centralized state. Now Cyrus' goal was Egypt. But the nomadic Massagetae on the northeastern outskirts of the empire caused a lot of trouble. On a campaign against them in 530 BC. Cyrus was wounded and died.

The rise of the Persian Empire

The work of Cyrus the Great was continued by his son Cambyses II. He led the campaign against Egypt. At this time, Egypt was not going through the best of times: a weak army, an inept pharaoh Psammetichus III, high taxes. Population dissatisfaction. Before setting out on a campaign, Cambyses enlisted the help of the nomads of the waterless Sinai desert, who helped his army reach the city of Pelusium. The Egyptian commander-in-chief Phanes and the commander of the fleet Ujagorresent went over to the side of the Persians.

In 525 BC. A battle took place near the city of Pelusium. Both sides suffered heavy losses, but the Persians won. The capital Memphis was plundered, the population was taken into slavery, the son of Pharaoh Psammetichus was executed, but the pharaoh was spared. In the same year, Cambyses became pharaoh of Egypt. The next point of conquest was Nubia, but a sandstorm killed most of the Persian wax and they were forced to return to Egypt, where the former pharaoh Psammetichus rebelled against Cambyses. The Shah brutally suppressed the uprising: Psammetichus was now executed.

In connection with the above events, the Shah stayed in Egypt for three years. In Iran itself, uprisings began against the oppression of the Persians. Rumors reached the Shah that one of the leaders of the rebels was his brother Bardiya. Cambyses urgently went back, but died on the way home under mysterious circumstances.

Rebellion of Bardiya Gaumata

There is a lot of information about the Bardiya uprising. Firstly, Bardiya was not the Shah’s brother at all, but a Median priest and impostor Gaumata. He began his uprising in Babylonia, where he received universal support, and moved to Pasagard (the capital of Persia). Having won and subjugated Persia, Gaumata abolished taxes and conscription for three years in order to retain the provinces of the empire. All domestic politics was aimed at displacing the Persian elite and replacing it with the Median, as well as depriving them of all privileges.

Gaumata did not rule for long - only seven months - and was killed as a result of a palace conspiracy by the seven most noble Persian families. They were the ones who elected the new Shah. He became 28-year-old Darius, who restored the privileges of the Persians and began restoring the empire within its former borders. The task was not easy. The power was disintegrating: Babylonia, Armenia, Margiana, Elam, Parthia, the Saka tribes and others. In each province an impostor appeared, proclaiming himself either Cambyses, who miraculously survived on his way to his homeland, or a king overthrown by the Persians.

Darius Campaign

Many did not believe in the success of Darius' campaign. Nevertheless, he won victory after victory. The riots were suppressed with particular cruelty. In honor of all the victories, Darius erected the Behistun inscription, carved on a rock in the Pasagard region. It shows the enslaved kings of the provinces of the Achaemenid state, bringing tribute to their Shahan Shah Darius the Great. The kings look smaller than Darius, which indicates their subordinate position. Above the Shahanshah of Persia rises the sign of divine grace - farr.

In Zoroastrian mythology (although Zoroastrianism was not official religion empire, had a dominant position in the Persian court) far or hwarene was considered a sign of the gods who blessed the Shah to reign. However, if the Shah failed to fulfill his obligations or used his power for evil, the gods deprived him of farr and handed him over to another worthy candidate for the title of Shahanshah.

Persian reforms of Darius

The uprisings of the Achaemenid power pointed out to Darius the 'holes' in its administrative and military systems. Taking into account the mistakes of the past, the Shah carried out a number of reforms that did not change until the end of the empire:

1) The empire was divided into satrapies. Most often, the borders of satrapies were equivalent to the borders of the states located in these territories (Assyria, Babylonia, Egypt). They were led by satraps, who were appointed by the Shah and came from Persian families. Only administrative power was concentrated in the hands of the satraps: they monitored the collection of taxes, maintained order in the satrapy, and exercised judicial power. The satrapies also had military leaders, but they were subordinate only to the Shah. The number of satrapies also included autonomous regions such as the Phoenician cities, Cyprus and Cilicia. They were ruled with the help of local kings or tribal leaders.

2) The new capital Susa was created the central apparatus headed by the Shah's office. In large cities - Babylon, Ecbatana, Memphis and others - royal offices also appeared. The offices included scribes and officials. Accounting for taxes, duties and even gifts was introduced, and royal correspondence was conducted. Official language The Achaemenid power used Aramaic, but the satrap offices also used the local language. The entire administrative system was under the control of the Shah: a secret police was created (the ears and eyes of the king), as well as a new position - the commander of a thousand - the commander of the Shah's personal guard, who supervised the officials.

3) Was carried out work to codify the laws of conquered countries and the study of ancient laws in order to combine them into one single code for all peoples. True, it is worth noting that the Persians occupied a privileged place in them.

4) Darius introduced new tax system: each satrapy paid a fixed amount of taxes, which was based on soil fertility, the number of male population, etc. the Persians did not pay taxes, but supplied food. The system of gifts was no longer voluntary - their size was also strictly fixed.

5) They began to mint a single coin - a gold darik.

6) The power of the empire directly depended on the army. Its core consisted of the Persians and Medes. The army consisted of infantry (recruited from farmers) and cavalry (it included the Persian nobility). The Saka nomads played an important role in the Persian army as horse archers. The armament of the horsemen usually consisted of a bronze shield, iron armor and spears. The backbone was 10 thousand 'immortals'. The first thousand were the king's personal guard and were recruited from the sons of noble Persian families. The rest were recruited from the Elamites and Iranian tribes. This detachment was considered the most privileged in the entire Achaemenid army. Each satrapy had an army to prevent revolts. Their composition was quite varied, but did not contain representatives of this province. On the border of the country, soldiers were allocated a small piece of land. Every month each warrior received grain and meat. And being retired - land plots on which grain crops were grown, or sold or donated.

7) Darius started construction of roads and post offices. The satrapies were connected by post offices so that in case of war they could reach their destination as quickly as possible.

After carrying out such successful reforms, the Shah turned his attention to the Scythians, who were disturbing the borders of the empire, and the Greeks, who rebelled against the power of the Persians. Darius' campaign against Athens is considered to be the beginning of the Greco-Persian Wars.

Provincial uprisings

The cause of the uprisings was the ever-increasing tax burden and the removal of artisans from the cities (at that time, the construction of the Persepolis Palace (Takhte Jamshid), the new residence of the Achaemenids, was being completed). Egypt was the first to express dissatisfaction (in 486 BC). The uprising was suppressed, but it took away too many of Darius' forces - he died in the same year. Now his son Xerxes became the Shah, who spent his entire life constantly suppressing uprisings. It was Egypt that was re-included. In 484 BC. Babylon rose, and with it another half of the empire’s provinces. The uprising was finally suppressed only in 481 BC. its population was taken into slavery, and all the city's defenses were destroyed.

In 480 BC. Xerxes set out on a second military campaign against the Greeks. Troops were gathered from all satrapies from India to Egypt. According to Geradot, the Persian army consisted of 1,700,000 infantry, 80,000 horsemen, and 20,000 camels. But such calculations are unlikely to be correct: if we take into account all the facts, such as the number of the male population in the satrapies, their mortality from disease and simply hard physical labor, then the total number of warriors will not exceed 100,000 people. But even this figure was terrifying at the time. But this campaign also turned out to be a failure. Such famous battles at Salamis, Thermopylae and Plataea did not bring victory to the Persians. Greece gained independence. Moreover, she began her campaign in Asia Minor and the Aegean Sea against the Achaemenids.

Fall of the Persian Empire

After the death of Xerxes, the shahs mainly tried to keep the empire within its borders, and also waged internecine wars with each other for the throne. In 413 BC. the Lydian state rebelled; in 404 BC Egypt separated, where the XXIX Dynasty was proclaimed; in 360 BC Cyprus, Cilicia, Lydia, Khorezm, northwestern India, Caria, and the Phoenician city of Sidon gained independence.

However, the main danger came from Asia Minor from the Greek province of the shepherds of Macedonia. While Greece was busy fighting between Athens and Sparta, and Persia was frantically trying to maintain its borders, the young Macedonian prince Alexander in 334 BC. went on a campaign against the Achaemenids. The ruling Shah Darius III suffered defeat after defeat. The satraps voluntarily went over to Alexander's side. In 331 BC. The decisive battle of Gaugamela took place, after which Greater Persia ceased to exist. Darius III fled and took refuge in a mill, the owner of which, flattered by the rich clothes of the stranger, stabbed him to death at night. This is how the last Shah of the Achaemenid dynasty ended his life. All previously subject lands of the Achaemenids came under the rule of Alexander the Great.

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In the middle of the 6th century. BC e. The Persians entered the arena of world history - a mysterious tribe that the previously civilized peoples of the Middle East knew only from hearsay.

About morals and customs ancient Persians known from the writings of the peoples who lived next to them. In addition to their powerful growth and physical development, the Persians had a will, hardened in the fight against the harsh climate and the dangers of nomadic life in the mountains and steppes. At that time they were famous for their moderate lifestyle, temperance, strength, courage and unity.

According to Herodotus, the Persians wore clothes made from animal skins and felt tiaras (caps), did not drink wine, ate not as much as they wanted, but as much as they had. They were indifferent to silver and gold.

Simplicity and modesty in food and clothing remained one of the main virtues even during the period of Persian rule over, when they began to dress in luxurious Median outfits, wear gold necklaces and bracelets, when they were brought to the table of the Persian kings and nobles in fresh fish from distant seas, fruits from Babylonia and Syria. Even then, during the coronation rites of the Persian kings, the Achaemenid who ascended the throne had to put on the clothes that he had not worn as king, eat some dried figs and drink a cup of sour milk.

The ancient Persians were allowed to have many wives, as well as concubines, and to marry close relatives, such as nieces and half-sisters. Ancient Persian customs forbade women to show themselves to strangers (among the numerous reliefs in Persepolis there is not a single image of a woman). The ancient historian Plutarch wrote that the Persians are characterized by wild jealousy not only towards their wives. They even kept slaves and concubines locked up so that outsiders could not see them, and they transported them in closed carts.

History of ancient Persia

Persian king Cyrus II from the Achaemenid clan for short term conquered Media and many other countries and had a huge and well-armed army, which began to prepare for a campaign against Babylonia. A new force appeared in Western Asia, which in a short time managed to - in just a few decades- completely change the political map of the Middle East.

Babylonia and Egypt abandoned many years of hostile policies towards each other, for the rulers of both countries were well aware of the need to prepare for war with the Persian Empire. The outbreak of war was only a matter of time.

The campaign against the Persians began in 539 BC. e. Decisive battle between the Persians and Babylonians occurred near the city of Opis on the Tigris River. Cyrus won a complete victory here, soon his troops took the well-fortified city of Sippar, and the Persians captured Babylon without a fight.

After this, the Persian ruler's gaze turned to the East, where for several years he waged a grueling war with nomadic tribes and where he eventually died in 530 BC. e.

Cyrus's successors, Cambyses and Darius, completed the work he had begun. in 524-523 BC e. Cambyses' campaign against Egypt took place, as a result of which Achaemenid power was established on the banks of the Nile. turned into one of the satrapies of the new empire. Darius continued to strengthen the eastern and western borders of the empire. Towards the end of the reign of Darius, who died in 485 BC. e., the Persian power dominated over a vast territory from Aegean Sea in the west to India in the east and from the deserts of Central Asia in the north to the rapids of the Nile in the south. The Achaemenids (Persians) united almost the entire civilized world known to them and ruled it until the 4th century. BC e., when their power was broken and conquered by the military genius of Alexander the Great.

Chronology of the rulers of the Achaemenid dynasty:

• Achaemen, 600s. BC.
• Theispes, 600s BC.
• Cyrus I, 640 - 580 BC.
• Cambyses I, 580 - 559 BC.
• Cyrus II the Great, 559 - 530 BC.
• Cambyses II, 530 - 522 BC.
• Bardia, 522 BC
• Darius I, 522 - 486 BC.
• Xerxes I, 485 - 465 BC.
• Artaxerxes I, 465 - 424 BC.
• Xerxes II, 424 BC
• Secudian, 424 - 423 BC.
• Darius II, 423 - 404 BC.
• Artaxerxes II, 404 - 358 BC.
• Artaxerxes III, 358 - 338 BC.
• Artaxerxes IV Arses, 338 - 336 BC.
• Darius III, 336 - 330 BC.
• Artaxerxes V Bessus, 330 - 329 BC.

Map of the Persian Empire

The Aryan tribes - the eastern branch of the Indo-Europeans - by the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. inhabited almost the entire territory of present-day Iran. Self the word "Iran" is the modern form of the name "Ariana", i.e. country of the Aryans. Initially, these were warlike tribes of semi-nomadic cattle breeders who fought on war chariots. Some of the Aryans migrated even earlier and captured it, giving rise to the Indo-Aryan culture. Other Aryan tribes, closer to the Iranians, remained nomadic in Central Asia and the northern steppes - the Sakas, Sarmatians, etc. The Iranians themselves, having settled on the fertile lands of the Iranian Plateau, gradually abandoned their nomadic life and took up farming, adopting the skills of the Iranians. High level reached already in the XI-VIII centuries. BC e. Iranian craft. His monument is the famous “Luristan bronzes” - skillfully made weapons and household items with images of mythical and real-life animals.

"Luristan Bronzes"- a cultural monument of Western Iran. It was here, in close proximity and confrontation, that the most powerful Iranian kingdoms arose. The first of them Media has strengthened(in northwestern Iran). The Median kings took part in the destruction of Assyria. The history of their state is well known from written monuments. But Median monuments of the 7th-6th centuries. BC e. very poorly studied. Even the capital of the country, the city of Ecbatana, has not yet been found. What is known is that it was located in the vicinity of the modern city of Hamadan. Nevertheless, two Median fortresses already studied by archaeologists from the times of the fight against Assyria speak of a fairly high culture of the Medes.

In 553 BC. e. Cyrus (Kurush) II, the king of the subordinate Persian tribe from the Achaemenid clan, rebelled against the Medes. In 550 BC. e. Cyrus united the Iranians under his rule and led them to conquer the world. In 546 BC. e. he conquered Asia Minor, and in 538 BC. e. fell The son of Cyrus, Cambyses, conquered, and under King Darius I at the turn of the 6th-5th centuries. before. n. e. Persian power reached its greatest expansion and prosperity.

Monuments of its greatness are the royal capitals excavated by archaeologists - the most famous and best researched monuments of Persian culture. The oldest of them is Pasargadae, the capital of Cyrus.

Sasanian revival - Sasanian power

In 331-330 BC e. The famous conqueror Alexander the Great destroyed the Persian Empire. In retaliation for Athens, once devastated by the Persians, Greek Macedonian soldiers brutally plundered and burned Persepolis. The Achaemenid dynasty came to an end. The period of Greco-Macedonian rule over the East began, which is usually called the Hellenistic era.

For the Iranians, the conquest was a disaster. Power over all neighbors was replaced by humiliated submission to long-time enemies - the Greeks. The traditions of Iranian culture, already shaken by the desire of kings and nobles to imitate the vanquished in luxury, were now completely trampled upon. Little changed after the liberation of the country by the nomadic Iranian tribe of the Parthians. The Parthians expelled the Greeks from Iran in the 2nd century. BC e., but they themselves borrowed a lot from Greek culture. It is still used on coins and inscriptions of their kings. Greek language. Temples are still being built with numerous statues, according to Greek models, which seemed blasphemous to many Iranians. In ancient times, Zarathushtra forbade the worship of idols, commanding that an unquenchable flame be venerated as a symbol of deity and sacrifices made to it. It was the religious humiliation that was greatest, and it was not for nothing that the cities built by the Greek conquerors were later called “Dragon buildings” in Iran.

In 226 AD e. The rebel ruler of Pars, who bore the ancient royal name Ardashir (Artaxerxes), overthrew the Parthian dynasty. The second story has begun Persian Empire - Sassanid Empire, the dynasty to which the winner belonged.

The Sassanians sought to revive the culture of ancient Iran. The very history of the Achaemenid state had by that time become a vague legend. So, the society that was described in the legends of the Zoroastrian mobed priests was put forward as an ideal. The Sassanians built, in fact, a culture that had never existed in the past, thoroughly imbued with a religious idea. This had little in common with the era of the Achaemenids, who willingly adopted the customs of the conquered tribes.

Under the Sassanids, the Iranian decisively triumphed over the Hellenic. Greek temples completely disappear, the Greek language goes out of official use. The broken statues of Zeus (who was identified with Ahura Mazda under the Parthians) are replaced by faceless altars of fire. Naqsh-i-Rustem is decorated with new reliefs and inscriptions. In the 3rd century. The second Sasanian king Shapur I ordered his victory over the Roman emperor Valerian to be carved on the rocks. On the reliefs of the kings, a bird-shaped farn is overshadowed - a sign of divine protection.

Capital of Persia became the city of Ctesiphon, built by the Parthians next to the emptying Babylon. Under the Sassanids, new palace complexes were built in Ctesiphon and huge (up to 120 hectares) royal parks were laid out. The most famous of the Sasanian palaces is Tak-i-Kisra, the palace of King Khosrow I, who ruled in the 6th century. Along with monumental reliefs, palaces were now decorated with delicate carved ornaments in lime mixture.

Under the Sassanids, the irrigation system of Iranian and Mesopotamian lands was improved. In the VI century. The country was covered by a network of kariz (underground water pipelines with clay pipes), stretching up to 40 km. The cleaning of the carises was carried out through special wells dug every 10 m. The carises served for a long time and ensured the rapid development of agriculture in Iran during the Sasanian era. It was then that cotton and sugar cane began to be grown in Iran, and gardening and winemaking developed. At the same time, Iran became one of the suppliers of its own fabrics - both woolen, linen and silk.

Sasanian power was much smaller Achaemenid, covered only Iran itself, part of the lands of Central Asia, the territories of present-day Iraq, Armenia and Azerbaijan. She had to fight for a long time, first with Rome, then with the Byzantine Empire. Despite all this, the Sassanids lasted longer than the Achaemenids - more than four centuries. Ultimately, the state, exhausted by continuous wars in the West, was engulfed in a struggle for power. The Arabs took advantage of this, bringing a new faith - Islam - by force of arms. In 633-651 after a fierce war they conquered Persia. So it was over with the ancient Persian state and ancient Iranian culture.

Persian system of government

Ancient Greeks who became acquainted with the organization government controlled in the Achaemenid Empire, they admired the wisdom and foresight of the Persian kings. In their opinion, this organization was the pinnacle of development of the monarchical form of government.

The Persian kingdom was divided into large provinces, called satrapies by the title of their rulers - satraps (Persian, “kshatra-pavan” - “guardian of the region”). Usually there were 20 of them, but this number fluctuated, since sometimes the management of two or more satrapies was entrusted to one person and, conversely, one region was divided into several. This pursued mainly taxation purposes, but sometimes the characteristics of the peoples inhabiting them and historical characteristics were also taken into account. Satraps and rulers of smaller regions were not the only representatives of local government. In addition to them, in many provinces there were hereditary local kings or ruling priests, as well as free cities and, finally, “benefactors” who received cities and districts for life, or even hereditary possession. These kings, rulers and high priests differed in position from satraps only in that they were hereditary and had a historical and national connection with the population, who saw them as bearers of ancient traditions. They independently carried out internal governance, retained local law, a system of measures, language, imposed taxes and duties, but were under the constant control of satraps, who could often intervene in the affairs of the regions, especially during unrest and unrest. Satraps also resolved border disputes between cities and regions, litigation in cases where the participants were citizens of various urban communities or various vassal regions, and regulated political relations. Local rulers, like satraps, had the right to communicate directly with the central government, and some of them, such as the kings of the Phoenician cities, Cilicia, and Greek tyrants, maintained their own army and fleet, which they personally commanded, accompanying the Persian army on large campaigns or performing military duties. orders from the king. However, the satrap could at any time demand these troops for the royal service and place his own garrison in the possessions of local rulers. The main command over the provincial troops also belonged to him. The satrap was even allowed to recruit soldiers and mercenaries independently and at his own expense. He was, as they would call him in a more recent era, the governor-general of his satrapy, ensuring its internal and external security.

The highest command of the troops was carried out by the commanders of four or, as during the subjugation of Egypt, five military districts into which the kingdom was divided.

Persian system of government provides an example of the victors’ amazing respect for local customs and the rights of conquered peoples. In Babylonia, for example, all documents from the times of Persian rule are legally no different from those dating back to the period of independence. The same thing happened in Egypt and Judea. In Egypt, the Persians left the same not only the division into nomes, but also the sovereign surnames, the location of troops and garrisons, as well as the tax immunity of temples and priesthood. Of course, the central government and the satrap could intervene at any time and decide matters at their own discretion, but for the most part It was enough for them if the country was calm, taxes were received regularly, the troops were in order.

Such a management system did not emerge in the Middle East right away. For example, initially in the conquered territories it relied only on the force of arms and intimidation. The areas taken “by battle” were included directly in the House of Ashur - the central region. Those who surrendered to the mercy of the winner often preserved their local dynasty. But over time, this system turned out to be poorly suited for managing the expanding state. Reorganization of management carried out by King Tiglath-pileser III in the UNT century. BC e., in addition to the policy of forced relocations, it also changed the system of governing the regions of the empire. The kings tried to prevent the emergence of overly powerful clans. To prevent the creation of hereditary possessions and new dynasties among the governors of the regions, the most important posts eunuchs were often appointed. In addition, although major officials received huge land holdings, they did not constitute a single tract, but were scattered throughout the country.

But still, the main support of Assyrian rule, as well as Babylonian rule later, was the army. Military garrisons literally surrounded the entire country. Taking into account the experience of their predecessors, the Achaemenids added to the force of arms the idea of ​​a “kingdom of countries,” that is, a reasonable combination of local characteristics with the interests of the central government.

The vast state needed the means of communication necessary to control the central government over local officials and rulers. The language of the Persian office, in which even royal decrees were issued, was Aramaic. This is explained by the fact that it was actually in common use in Assyria and Babylonia back in Assyrian times. The conquests of the western regions, Syria and Palestine, by the Assyrian and Babylonian kings further contributed to its spread. This language gradually took the place of ancient Akkadian cuneiform in international relations; it was even used on the coins of the Asia Minor satraps of the Persian king.

Another feature of the Persian Empire that delighted the Greeks was there were beautiful roads, described by Herodotus and Xenophon in stories about the campaigns of King Cyrus. The most famous were the so-called Royal, which went from Ephesus in Asia Minor, off the coast of the Aegean Sea, east to Susa, one of the capitals of the Persian state, through the Euphrates, Armenia and Assyria along the Tigris River; the road leading from Babylonia through the Zagros mountains to the east to another capital of Persia - Ecbatana, and from here to the Bactrian and Indian border; the road from the Issky Gulf of the Mediterranean Sea to Sinop on the Black Sea, crossing Asia Minor, etc.

These roads were not only built by the Persians. Most of them existed in Assyrian and even earlier times. The beginning of the construction of the Royal Road, which was the main artery of the Persian monarchy, probably dates back to the era of the Hittite kingdom, which was located in Asia Minor on the way from Mesopotamia and Syria to Europe. Sardis, the capital of Lydia conquered by the Medes, was connected by a road to another large city - Pteria. From there the road went to the Euphrates. Herodotus, speaking about the Lydians, calls them the first shopkeepers, which was natural for the owners of the road between Europe and Babylon. The Persians continued this route from Babylonia further east, to their capitals, improved it and adapted it not only for trade purposes, but also for state needs - mail.

The Persian kingdom also took advantage of another invention of the Lydians - coins. Until the 7th century. BC e. Subsistence farming dominated throughout the East, monetary circulation was just beginning to emerge: the role of money was played by metal ingots of a certain weight and shape. These could be rings, plates, mugs without embossing or images. The weight was different everywhere, and therefore, outside the place of origin, the ingot simply lost the value of a coin and had to be weighed again each time, i.e., it became an ordinary commodity. On the border between Europe and Asia, the Lydian kings were the first to begin minting state coins of clearly defined weight and denomination. From here the use of such coins spread throughout Asia Minor, Cyprus and Palestine. The ancient trading countries -, and - retained the old system for a very long time. They began minting coins after the campaigns of Alexander the Great, and before that they used coins made in Asia Minor.

Establishing a unified tax system, the Persian kings could not do without minting coins; In addition, the needs of the state, which kept mercenaries, as well as the unprecedented growth of international trade, necessitated the need for a single coin. And the kingdom was introduced gold coin, and only the government had the right to mint it; local rulers, cities and satraps received the right to mint only silver and copper coins for payment to mercenaries, which remained an ordinary commodity outside their region.

So, by the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. In the Middle East, through the efforts of many generations and many peoples, a civilization arose that even the freedom-loving Greeks was considered ideal. Here is what the ancient Greek historian Xenophon wrote: “Wherever the king lives, wherever he goes, he makes sure that everywhere there are gardens, called paradises, full of everything beautiful and good that the earth can produce. He spends most of his time in them, unless the time of year prevents this... Some say that when the king gives gifts, those who have distinguished themselves in war are called first, because it is useless to plow a lot if there is no one to protect, and then those who cultivate the land in the best way, for the strong could not exist if there were no workers...".

It is not surprising that this civilization developed in Western Asia. It not only arose earlier than others, but also developed faster and more energetically, had the most favorable conditions for its development thanks to constant contacts with neighbors and the exchange of innovations. Here, more often than in other ancient centers of world culture, new ideas arose and important discoveries were made in almost all areas of production and culture. Potter's wheel and wheel, bronze and iron making, war chariot as a fundamentally new means of warfare, various forms of writing from pictograms to the alphabet - all this and much more genetically goes back to Western Asia, from where these innovations spread throughout the rest of the world, including other centers of primary civilization.

>>History: Ancient Persia

21. Ancient Persia - “country of countries”

1. The rise of Persia.

The country of the Persians was a remote province for a long time Assyria. It was located on the site of modern Iran, occupying the territory between the Caspian Sea and Persian Gulf. In the middle of the 6th century BC. e. The rapid rise of the Persian state began. In 558 BC. e. king Persia became Cyrus II the Great. He captured neighboring Media, then defeated Croesus, the ruler richest kingdom Lydia.

Historians suggest that the world's first silver and gold coins began to be minted in Lydia in the 7th century BC. e.

The wealth of the last Lydian king Croesus became a proverb in ancient times. “Rich as Croesus” - this is what they said and still say about a very rich man. Before the start of the war with Persia, Croesus turned to the soothsayers, wanting to get an answer about the outcome of the war. They gave an ambiguous answer: “By crossing the river, you will destroy the great kingdom.” And so it happened. Croesus decided that we were talking about the Persian kingdom, but he destroyed his own kingdom, suffering a crushing defeat from Cyrus.

Under King Cyrus, the Persian Empire included all the lands that once belonged to Assyria and the Neo-Babylonian kingdom. In 539 BC. e. fell under the pressure of the Persians Babylon. The Persian power surpassed all previously existing states in territory Ancient world and became an empire. The possessions of Persia as a result of the conquests of Cyrus and his son extended from Egypt to India. While conquering the country, Cyrus did not encroach on the customs and religion of its people. To the title of the Persian king he added the title of ruler of the conquered country.

2. The death of Cyrus the Great.

In ancient times, many considered King Cyrus the Great to be the model of a ruler. From his ancestors, Cyrus inherited wisdom, firmness and the ability to rule over peoples. However, Cyrus, who defeated many kings and military leaders, was destined to fall at the hands of a female warrior. To the northeast of the Persian kingdom stretched the lands inhabited by the warlike nomadic tribes of the Massagetae. They were ruled by Queen Tomiris. Cyrus first invited her to marry him. However, the proud queen rejected Cyrus's proposal. Then the Persian king moved his army of thousands to the country of the Syr Darya River, in Central Asia. In the first battle, the Massagetians were successful, but then the Persians defeated part of the Massagetian army by cunning. Among the dead was the queen's son. Then the queen swore an oath to give the hated conqueror blood to drink. The light cavalry of the Massagetae exhausted the Persian army with their sudden and swift attacks. In one of the battles, Cyrus himself was killed. Tomiris ordered the leather fur to be filled with blood and the head of the dead enemy to be stuffed into it. Thus ended the almost 30-year reign of Cyrus the Great, who seemed so powerful.

3. The greatest eastern despotism.

At the end of the reign of Cyrus's son, King Cambyses, turmoil began in Persia. As a result of the struggle for power, Darius I, a distant relative of Cyrus, became the ruler of the Persian state.

The events that followed the death of Cyrus the Great and the first years of Darius's reign are known from the Behistun inscription. It was carved on the rock during the reign of Darius I. The height of the inscription is 7.8 m. It is made in three languages ​​- Old Persian, Elamite and Akkadian. The inscription was discovered in 1835 by the English officer G. Rawlinson. It made it possible to decipher Persian and then Akkadian cuneiform.

Under Darius, the Persian Empire expanded its borders even further and reached its greatest power. It united many countries and peoples. Persian empire was called the “country of countries”, and its ruler was called the “king of kings”. All his subjects unquestioningly obeyed him - from noble Persians who occupied the highest positions in the state, to the last slave. The Persian Empire was a true oriental despotism.

In order to better manage the huge empire, Darius divided its territory into 20 satrapies. A satrapy is a province headed by a governor appointed by the king - a satrap. Since these managers often abused their power, the word "satrap" subsequently acquired a negative meaning. It came to mean an official who rules arbitrarily, a tyrant ruler. Darius did not trust many satraps, so each of them had secret informers. These informers were called the “eyes and ears” of the king. They were obliged to report to the king everything about the actions, life and plans of the satraps.

Throughout the Persian Empire, special officials collected taxes into the royal treasury. Severe punishment awaited all those who evaded. No one could escape paying taxes .

Roads were built not only between major cities, but also reached the most remote corners of the Persian Empire. In order for the king's orders to reach the provinces faster and more reliably. Darius established a state post office. The "royal" road connected the most important cities of the Persian Empire. Special posts were installed on it. There were messengers here, ready at any moment to set off on fast-footed horses and deliver the king’s message to any point in the empire. Darius updated monetary system. Under him, gold coins began to be minted, which were called “dariks”. Trade flourished in the Persian Empire, grandiose construction was carried out, and crafts developed.

4. Capitals of the Persians.

The Persian Empire had several capitals: the ancient city of Susa, the former capital of Media Ecbatana, the city of Pasargadae built by Cyrus. The Persian kings lived for a long time in Babylon. But the main capital was Persepolis, built by Darius I. Here the “king of kings” solemnly celebrated the Persian New Year, which was celebrated on the day Winter Solstice. The coronation took place in Persepolis. Representatives from all provinces came here for several weeks a year to present rich gifts to the king.

Persepolis was built on an artificial platform. In the royal palace there was a huge throne room where the king received ambassadors. The guards of the “immortals” are depicted on the walls rising along the wide staircases. This was the name of the selected royal army, numbering 10 thousand soldiers. When one of them died, another immediately took his place. The "Immortals" are armed with long spears, massive bows, and heavy shields. They served as the “eternal” guard of the king. Persepolis was built by all of Asia. An ancient inscription testifies to this.

The “procession of peoples” that were part of the Persian state is immortalized on the walls of Persepolis. Representatives of each of them bring rich gifts - gold, precious items, and lead horses, camels, and cattle.

5. Religion of the Persians.

In ancient times, the Persians worshiped different gods. Their priests were called magicians. At the end of the first half of the 1st millennium BC. e. The magician and prophet Zoroaster (Zarathustra) transformed the ancient Persian religion. His teaching was called Zoroastrianism. Holy book Zoroastrianism - "Avesta".

Zoroaster taught that the creator of the world is the god of goodness and light, Ahura Mazda. His enemy is the spirit of evil and darkness Angra Manyu. They are constantly fighting among themselves, but the final victory will be for light and goodness. Man must support the god of light in this struggle. Ahura Mazda was depicted as a winged solar disk. He was considered the patron saint of the Persian kings.

The Persians did not build temples or erect statues of gods. They built altars on high places or on hills and performed sacrifices on them. Zoroaster's teaching about the struggle between light and darkness in the world had a great influence on the religious ideas of subsequent eras

IN AND. Ukolova, L.P. Marinovich, History, 5th grade
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Often these days we can hear a story about a country in the southwestern part of Asia called Persia. What country now has replaced it with Since 1935, Persia began to be officially called Iran.

In ancient times, this state was the center of a huge empire, the territory of which extended from Egypt itself to the Indus River.

Geography

It is worth saying that at one time the state of Persia did not have clear boundaries. It is quite problematic to determine which country is located on these lands now. Even modern Iran is only approximately located on the territory of Ancient Persia. The fact is that in certain periods this empire was located over most of the world known at that time. But there were worse years, when the territory of Persia was divided among themselves by local rulers who were hostile to each other.

The relief of most of the territory of present-day Persia is a high (1200 m) highland, which is crossed by a chain of stone ridges and individual peaks rising up to 5500 m. In the northern and western parts of this area there are the Elbrus and Zagros mountain ranges. They are arranged in a "V" shape, framing the highlands.

To the west of Persia was Mesopotamia. This is the homeland of the most ancient civilizations on Earth. At one time, the states of this empire significantly influenced the culture of the still nascent country of Persia.

Story

Persia (Iran) is a country with the greatest past. Its history includes wars of conquest and defense, uprisings and revolutions, as well as brutal suppression of all political uprisings. But at the same time, Ancient Iran is the homeland of the great people of that time, who led the country’s art and culture to flourish, and also built buildings of amazing beauty, the architecture of which still amazes us with its splendor. The history of Persia includes a large number of ruling dynasties. It is simply impossible to count them. Each of these dynasties put into effect its own laws and rules, which no one simply dared to break.

Historical periods

Persia experienced a lot on the path of its formation. But two periods are considered the main milestones of its development. One of them is pre-Muslim, and the second is Muslim. The Islamization of Ancient Iran caused fundamental changes in its political, social and cultural sphere. However, this does not at all mean the disappearance of former spiritual values. Not only were they not lost, but they also significantly influenced the new culture that arose in the country at the turn of two historical periods. In addition, many pre-Muslim rituals and traditions have been preserved in Iran to this day.

Achaemenid rule

As a state, Ancient Iran began its existence with Cyrus II. This ruler became the founder of the Achaemenid dynasty, which was in power from 550 to 330 AD. BC e. Under Cyrus II, the two largest Indo-Asian tribes, the Persians and the Medes, were united for the first time. This was the period of greatest power of Persia. Its territory extended to the Central and Indus Valley and Egypt. The most important archaeological and historical monument of the Achaemenid era are the ruins of the capital of Persia - Persepolis.

Here is the tomb of Cyrus II, as well as the inscription carved by Darius I on the Behistun rock. At one time, Persepolis was burned by Alexander the Great during his campaign to conquer Iran. This conqueror put an end to the great Achaemenid Empire. Unfortunately, no written evidence of this era has survived. They were destroyed by order of Alexander the Great.

Hellenistic period

From 330 to 224 BC e. Persia was in a state of decline. Along with the country, its culture also deteriorated. During this period, Ancient Iran was under the rule of the then ruling Greek Seleucid dynasty, being part of the state of the same name. The culture and language of Persia changed. They were influenced by the Greeks. At the same time, Iranian culture did not die. She influenced the settlers from Hellas. But this happened only in those areas where there were no self-sufficient and large Greek communities.

Parthian Kingdom

Years passed, the power of the Greeks in Persia came to an end. The history of Ancient Iran entered its new stage. The country became part of the Parthian kingdom. The Arsacid dynasty ruled here, considering themselves descendants of the Achaemenids. These rulers liberated Persia from Greek rule and also protected it from Roman invasion and nomadic raids.

During this period, the Iranian folk epic was created, and a large number of stories with heroic characters appeared. One of them was Rustema. This Iranian hero is in many ways similar to Hercules.

During the Parthian period, the feudal system was strengthened. This weakened Persia. As a result, it was conquered by the Sassanids. A new stage in the history of Ancient Iran began.

Sassanid State

Between 224 and 226 AD. e. The last Parthian king Artaban V was overthrown from the throne. The Sassanid dynasty seized power. During this period, the borders of Ancient Iran were not only restored, but also expanded to the western regions of China, including Punjab and Transcaucasia. The dynasty waged a constant struggle with the Romans, and one of its representatives, Shapur I, even managed to capture their emperor Valerian. The Sassanid dynasty waged constant wars with Byzantium.
During this period, cities developed in Persia, and the central government strengthened. At the same time, Zoroastrianism arose, which became the official religion of the country. During the Sassanid era, a four-stage system of the existing administrative division and stratification of all layers of society into 4 estates was developed and approved.

During the Sassanid era, Christianity penetrated into Persia, which was negatively greeted by the Zoroastrian priests. At the same time, some other opposition groups appeared. religious movements. Among them are Mazdakism and Manichaeism.

The most famous representative of the Sassanid dynasty was Shah Khosrow I Anushirvan. The literal translation of his name means "with an immortal soul." His reign lasted from 531 to 579. Khosrow I was so famous that his fame continued for many centuries after the fall of the Sassanid dynasty. This ruler remained in the memory of posterity as a great reformer. Khosrow I showed great interest in philosophy and science. Some Iranian sources even compare him with Plato’s “philosopher king.”

The Sassanids were significantly weakened constant wars with Rome. In 641 the country lost a major battle to the Arabs. The Sasanian stage of Iranian history ended with the death of the last representative of this dynasty - Yazdegerd III. Persia entered the Islamic period of its development.

Rule by local dynasties

The Arab Caliphate gradually expanded to the east. At the same time, his central government in Baghdad and Damascus could no longer maintain strict control over all provinces. This led to the emergence of local dynasties in Iran. The first of them is the Tahirids. Its representatives ruled from 821 to 873. in Khorasan. This dynasty was replaced by the Saffarids. Their dominance over the territories of Khorasan, southern Iran and Herat lasted throughout the second half of the ninth century. Then the throne was captured by the Samanids. This dynasty proclaimed itself to be the descendants of the Parthian military commander Bahram Chubin. The Samanids held the throne for more than fifty years, extending their power over large territories. During their reign, the country of Iran ran from the eastern edges of the highlands to the Aral Sea and the Zagros ridge. The center of the state was Bukhara.

Somewhat later, two more families ruled in the territory of Persia. In the second half of the tenth century these were the Ziyarids. They controlled the territory of the Caspian Sea coast. The Ziyarids became famous for their patronage of art and literature. During the same period, the Bund dynasty was in power in central Iran. They conquered Baghdad and Fors, Khuzistan and Kerman, Ray and Hamadan.

Local Iranian dynasties achieved power in the same way. They seized the throne, raising an armed rebellion.

Ghaznavid and Seljuk dynasties

Beginning in the eighth century, Turkic nomadic tribes began to penetrate. Gradually, the lifestyle of these people became sedentary. New settlements arose. Alp-Tegin, one of the Turkic tribal leaders, began to serve the Sassanids. In 962, he came to power and ruled the newly created state, the capital of which was the city of Ghazni. Alp-Tegin founded a new dynasty. The Ghaznavites held power for a little over a hundred years. One of its representatives, Mahmud Ghaznavi, kept the territory from Mesopotamia to India under constant control. The same ruler settled the Oghuz Turkic tribe in Kharasan. Subsequently, their leader Seljuk rebelled and overthrew the Ghaznavid dynasty. The city of Rey was declared the capital of Iran.

The Seljuk dynasty belonged to the devout Muslims. She subjugated all the local rulers, but for many years she waged constant wars for her dominance.
During the years of Seljuk rule, architecture flourished. During the reign of the dynasty, hundreds of madrassas, mosques, public buildings and palaces were built. But at the same time, the reign of the Seljuks was hampered by constant uprisings in the provinces, as well as invasions of other Turkic tribes that were moving towards the western lands. Constant wars weakened the state, and by the end of the first quarter of the twelfth century it began to disintegrate.

Mongol dominance

The invasion of Genghis Khan's troops did not escape Iran either. The history of the country tells us that in 1219 this commander managed to capture Khorezm, and then, moving west, plundered Bukhara, Balkh, Samarkand, Nashapur and Merv.

His grandson, Hulagu Khan, again plunged into Iran in 1256 and, taking Baghdad by storm, destroyed the Abbasi Caliphate. The conqueror took the title of Ilkhan, becoming the founder of the Hulaguid dynasty. He and his successors adopted the religion, culture and way of life of the Iranian people. Over the years, the Mongols' position in Persia began to weaken. They were forced to wage constant wars with feudal rulers and representatives of local dynasties.

Between 1380 and 1395 the territory of the Iranian plateau was captured by Amir Timur (Tamerlane). They conquered all the lands that were adjacent to Mediterranean Sea. Descendants maintained the Timurid state until 1506. Then it was subordinated to the Uzbek Sheybanid dynasty.

History of Iran from 15th to 18th centuries

Over the following centuries, wars for power continued to be waged in Persia. So, in the 15th century, the Ak-Koyundu and Kara-Aoyundu tribes fought among themselves. In 1502, Ismail I seized power. This monarch was the first representative of the Safavids, the Azerbaijani dynasty. During the reign of Ismail I and his successors, Iran revived its military power and became an economically prosperous country.

The Safavid state remained strong until the death of its last ruler, Abbas I, in 1629. In the east, the Uzbeks were expelled from Kharasan, and in the west, the Ottomans were defeated. Iran, whose map pointed to impressive territories belonging to it, subjugated Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan. It existed within these boundaries until the nineteenth century.

On the territory of Persia, wars were fought against the Turks and Afghans, who sought to conquer the country. These were the times when the Afshar dynasty was in power. The southern lands of Iran from 1760 to 1779 were under the rule of the dynasty founded by Zendov Kerim Khan. She was then overthrown by the Turkic Qajar tribe. Under the leadership of its leader, it conquered the lands of the entire Iranian plateau.

Qajar Dynasty

At the very beginning of the nineteenth century, Iran lost provinces located on the territory of modern Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan. This was the result of the fact that the Qajar dynasty was never able to create a strong state apparatus, a national army and a unified tax collection system. The power of its representatives turned out to be too weak and could not resist the imperial desires of Russia and Great Britain. In the second half of the nineteenth century, the lands of Afghanistan and Turkestan came under the control of these great powers. At the same time, Iran unwittingly began to serve as an arena for Russian-British confrontation.

The last of the Qajar family was a constitutional monarch. The dynasty was forced to accept this main law under pressure from the strikes taking place in the country. Two powers opposed the constitutional regime of Iran - Russia and Great Britain. In 1907 they signed an agreement to divide Persia. Its northern part went to Russia. IN southern lands Great Britain exerted its influence. The central part of the country was left as a neutral zone.

Iran at the beginning of the 20th century

The Qajar dynasty was overthrown by a coup d'etat. It was headed by General Reza Khan. A new Pahlavi dynasty came to power. This name, which translated from Parthian means “noble, brave,” was intended to emphasize the Iranian origin of the family.

During the reign of Reza Shah Pahlavi, Persia experienced its national revival. This was facilitated by numerous radical reforms carried out by the government. Industrialization had begun. Large investments were allocated for the development of industry. Highways and railways were built. Oil development and production was actively carried out. Sharia courts were replaced by legal proceedings. Thus, extensive modernization began in Persia at the beginning of the 20th century.

In 1935, the state of Persia changed its name. Which country is its legal successor now? Iran. This is the ancient self-name of Persia, which means “country of the Aryans” (the superior white race). After 1935, the pre-Islamic past began to be revived. Small and large cities in Iran began to rename. Pre-Islamic monuments were restored in them.

Overthrow of the Tsar's power

The last Shah of the Pahlavi dynasty ascended the throne in 1941. His reign lasted for 38 years. In pursuing his foreign policy, the Shah was guided by the opinion of the United States. At the same time, he supported the pro-American regimes that existed in Oman, Somalia and Chad. One of the most prominent opponents of the Shah was the Islamic priest Kma Ruhollah Khomeini. He led revolutionary activities against the existing government.

In 1977, the US President forced the Shah to ease repression against the opposition. As a result of this, numerous parties critical of the existing regime began to appear in Iran. The Islamic revolution was preparing. The activities carried out by the opposition aggravated the protest sentiments of Iranian society, which opposed the country's internal political course, oppression of the church and pro-American foreign policy.

The Islamic Revolution began after the events of January 1978. It was then that the police shot down a demonstration of students protesting against a slanderous article about Khomeini published in a state newspaper. The unrest continued throughout the year. The Shah was forced to introduce martial law in the country. However, it was no longer possible to keep the situation under control. In January 1979, the Shah left Iran.
After his escape, the country held a referendum. As a result, on April 1, 1979, the Islamic Republic of Iran emerged. In December of the same year, the updated constitution of the country saw the light. This document established the supreme power of Imam Khomeini, which after his death was to be transferred to his successor. The President of Iran, according to the constitution, stood at the head of political and civil power. Together with him, the country was ruled by the Prime Minister and an advisory council - the Menjlis. The President of Iran was by law the guarantor of the adopted constitution.

Iran today

Persia, known since time immemorial, is a very colorful state. What country today can so accurately correspond to the saying “The East is a delicate matter”? This is confirmed by the entire existence and development of the state in question.

The Islamic Republic of Iran is, without any doubt, unique in its identity. And this sets it apart from others. The capital of the Republic is the city of Tehran. This is a huge metropolis, one of the largest in the world.

Iran is a unique country with a large number of attractions, cultural monuments and its own peculiarities of way of life. The republic has 10% of the world's reserves of black gold. It is thanks to its oil fields that it is among the top ten exporters of this natural resource.

Persia - what country is it now? Highly religious. Its printing houses produce more copies of the Holy Quran than in all other Muslim countries.

After the Islamic Revolution, the republic set a course for universal literacy. The development of education here is proceeding at an accelerated pace.