But abnormally cold winters are not such rare guests in human memory. At least in the chronicles there is often talk about “extraordinary phenomena.”

For example, there is evidence of an unusually harsh winter in Scythia, where, according to data collected by Academician E.V. Oppokov, in 355 snow covered the ground with a layer of seven cubits. The frosts were so severe that the wine in the vessels froze. The cold weather returned 11 years later. The Rhine froze, and the ice was so thick and strong that columns of troops crossed it. A severe winter was also observed in 370, followed by a sultry, dry summer. Droughts in Western Europe had especially catastrophic consequences in the second half of the 5th century, when trees and vineyards dried up due to lack of rain, and rivers became shallow, ponds and streams dried up.

Winters 441/42-442/43. were unusually cold and prolonged.
At the turn of the 4th and 5th centuries, severe cold struck Byzantium. The entire Black Sea froze. As the chronicler wrote, ice “walked in mountains” through the streets of Constantinople for 30 days.

Exceptional cold struck Europe in 717-718. They covered the south of Russia, the Balkans, and Asia Minor. There was snow in Constantinople for 100 days. Severe winters occurred in 739, when the Bosporus froze, and in 761, when snow covered Europe in places, and in 763-764, when the Black Sea and the Dardanelles were covered with a 75-centimeter layer of ice. And in May 787, it was cold in Europe, it was snowing and birds froze in flight and fell to the ground.

Perhaps one of the most severe winters for the south of Russia and Byzantium was in 742. Here is how it was described in the “Russian Chronograph”:
“And the winter was fierce: the Pontic Sea froze 30 cubits, and snow fell on it 20 cubits” (ibid., 131).

In the third quarter of the 11th century. Chroniclers first noted an unusually harsh snowy winter (1067), during which Izyaslav, Svyatoslav and Vsevolod undertook a campaign against the western Russian lands.

According to the legends of the chroniclers, in the winters of 401 and 801 the waves of the Black Sea “hardened”. And in “859 the Adriatic Sea was so frozen that it was possible to walk to Venice.” In 1010 - 1011, frosts shackled the Turkish Black Sea coast. Terrible cold reached Africa, where the lower reaches of the Nile River were covered with ice.

In 1210-1211, the Po and Rhone rivers froze. In Venice, wagon trains walked across the frozen Adriatic Sea.

In 1322, the Baltic Sea was covered with such a thick layer of ice that people traveled by sleigh from Lübeck in Denmark to the shores of Pomerania.

In 1316, all the bridges in Paris were destroyed by ice.

In 1326, the entire Mediterranean Sea froze.

In 1365, the Rhine was covered with ice for three months.

In 1407-1408, all Swiss lakes froze.

In 1420 there was a terrible death rate from the cold in Paris; wolves ran into the city to devour the corpses lying unburied on the streets.

In 1468, wine in the cellars of Burgundy froze.

In 1558, an entire army of 40,000 men was camped on the frozen Danube, and in France frozen wine was sold in pieces by the weight.

There is more accurate information about the cold weather of the 18th century thanks to the invention of the thermometer.

For example, in 1709 it was -24 degrees in Paris for many days; the wine froze in the cellars and the bells cracked when ringing.

So not so unique last years in the sense of natural anomalies.

The Nile is not only the main body of water on the African continent, but also one of the longest rivers in the whole world. Receiving the reserves of its tributaries, it is a life-giving force for the population located along its course. This is a priceless treasure of the “dark continent”, over whose waters wars were fought and states united, dams were built and dry lands were revived.

Historical reference

The most important water artery the hottest continent of the planet has been revered by its population since ancient times as a source of life, well-being and prosperity. Thanks to the Nile, today we have the opportunity to get acquainted with Ancient Egypt, its architecture, art, science, wisdom, astronomical knowledge and religion. We can only assume what an important role the Nile played in the formation of the largest civilization that had a huge impact on the life of mankind. As is known, about 20% of the river’s length is located in the territory modern state Egypt. The state of agriculture, the quality of the harvest and its quantity depend on the behavior of the Nile. Thus, the unflooded waters of the Nile mean death for the population. In most cases, the river is always associated with Egypt, where the sacred waters are guarded by the pyramidal tombs of the rulers of the state, the monumental sculpture of the Sphinx, the giant statue of Ramses, and temples dedicated to outstanding pharaohs.

Geographical position

The Nile River is located in Africa and originates from the East African Plateau at an altitude of 1134 m. Not always calm in its flow, but flat, the river passes through the territory of 7 countries, simultaneously uniting them with its waters. Among them are the equatorial and multilingual Uganda, the country of wild Kenya, the unique Tanzania, the birthplace of humanity Ethiopia, the center of tropical epidemics, the desert Republic of Sudan and the contrasting Egypt. The great river has been feeding the territory of these states for about 3 million years, saving the population from hunger and drought. Such historical centers of Egypt as Cairo, Luxor, Aswan, Giza and Alexandria, and the capital of Sudan, Khartoum, grew up on it.

Climatic conditions

With a length of 6852 km, the Nile crosses the following equatorial, subequatorial, tropical and subtropical. Most of its route, which is more than 3000 km, passes through the territory of the largest desert in the world - the Sahara.

The river's feeding regime directly depends on climatic conditions. The Nile is the annual flood of the summer and winter period. The reason is associated with the rainy season in equatorial latitudes, where one of its tributaries originates. Thanks to this type of precipitation, the great river is full-flowing and fast-flowing. At this time of year, the Nile can overflow its banks, inundating populated areas and causing floods.

In winter it is replenished with the waters of the White Nile, and in summer - with the Blue Nile. Low water (most low level water) falls in the month of May. The temperature indicators of the water of a hydrological object vary depending on the type of climate. The average summer period is plus 26 o C, winter - plus 18 o C.

Source of the Nile

Many researchers disagreed with each other about where the source of the Nile was located. Inaccessible jungle, hilly terrain with ledges and rapids, mosquitoes and crocodiles became an obstacle to a thorough study of the hydrological object. The mystery became clear only in the middle of the 18th century, thanks to the efforts of the London Geographical Society and the determination of its employees - the officer, traveler John Speke and river explorer Samuel Baker.

The official opening began great river the year is considered to be 1864. The peculiarity of the Nile is that it has not one source, like most rivers on the planet, but two. The main tributary with geographic coordinates (0°N, 33°E) originates in the equatorial latitudes of Uganda, carrying its waters into Lake Victoria, and emerges as the stormy Kageroi River. Overcoming ledges and, at the same time, replenishing fresh water supplies in the lakes of the mainland, the right tributary emerges as the White Nile onto the flat surface of the African continent.

The birthplace of the second source is considered to be the area where the Blue Nile emerges. The confluence of two deep tributaries occurs near the capital of Sudan - the city of Khartoum. Following in a northern direction, the full-flowing river carries life force in a single channel through the desert territory into the Mediterranean Sea, forming a huge delta on its way.

Mouth of the sacred river

The place where the Nile River flows has geographical coordinates(31 o N, 30 o E). The shape of the mouth of the reservoir is no less unique than the history of the search for the source of the river. Thanks to river sediments, it forms a huge triangle, resembling the Greek letter “delta”. 160 km from the capital of Egypt, Cairo, two large navigable branches are formed - Damietta and Rashid, as well as many small channels.

It is the Nile Delta that is considered the most fertile section of the famous river. A unique natural formation stretches for more than 240 km along the southern shores Mediterranean Sea. This is the most populated part of Egypt and the entire Nile bed. The scale of river sediment is simply stunning; its size is equal to the area of ​​the entire Crimean peninsula.

Flora and fauna

Vegetable and animal world The area where the Nile is located changes in its species composition, in the direction of the river's flow. The richest areas of the zone are savannas and light forests, less expressive areas are deserts and semi-deserts.

The aquatic world is saturated with such representatives as the Nile crocodile, polyfin, hippopotamuses and a variety of fresh fish. About 300 species of birds nest on the banks of the river, many migratory and wintering representatives. But flamingos, pelicans, and herons especially stand out.

The most interesting flora and fauna of the delta and Nile Valley are papyrus, date palms, acacias, oleander, citrus fruits, reed thickets, cattails and ferns, cultivated vegetation. Here you can find representatives of the fauna such as turtles, hippopotamuses, artiodactyls, reptiles and many insects. The leaders among the animal world are birds. The Nile River basin is simply a salvation for the established flora and fauna.

For any tourist, getting to the area where the Nile is located will not be a problem. The most exciting and at the same time dangerous is traveling along the river. The source of the Nile is interesting for its inaccessibility. The place where the Nile River flows captivates with rich colors and amazing objects.

The distance between Moscow and the capital of Egypt on the map is more than 4000 km. For air transport in a straight line - about 3000 km and 4 hours of travel. Flights are organized by 8 airlines, where there are direct flights and with transfers in Istanbul. But where the Nile is most interesting is up to the tourist to decide. Not everyone likes the humid and hot jungle, some love warm sand, heat and pyramids.

Features of the great river

The main difference between the Nile and most rivers on the planet is the direction of the flow - from south to north. The nature of the river depends on the terrain. In the upper section it looks like a mountain river - seething and noisy. The hilly terrain and heavy rainfall help the river to develop its main channel with its flow. In its lower reaches, the sacred river is calm, quiet and navigable. Here, according to all the characteristics, we see that the object is the flat Nile River. Continent Africa, its homeland, is hot and deserted at its confluence, and humid at its source.

The section of the river with rapids and waterfalls is called the Victoria Nile, the calm Albert Nile stretches until the tributaries reunite into one channel, the most swampy section is in the Bahr el-Jebel. Forming six rapids, the river created many problems with navigation for centuries, so the construction of a reservoir was simply a necessity. It solved the issue of transport movements and at the same time became a salvation for arid regions.

Unlike the Amazon, the Nile flows through the desert regions of the “dark continent”, but does not lose its full flow. It brings a lot of silt deposits, which are organic fertilizer, thereby doubling its advantage.

Tourist opportunities

The Nile is not just a hydrological feature of the planet. This is a ready-made natural route stretching from the equator to the tropical borders. Its tourism opportunities are endless. For those who like to see more and faster, cruise trips along the river with stops in famous historical cities have been created:

• Cairo attracts with museums and ancient Egyptian art, pyramids and statues;
• Alexandria captivates with legends, forts and beaches;
• Thebes - temples and honorable age;
• Aswan - palm islands and the standard of living of Egypt;
• Sudanese Khartoum - ensembles of palace architecture.

Those who like to explore the natural resources along the river may spend more time, but as a result they will get a brighter impression.

I express my gratitude to V.V. Akimov for his help in substantiating the post with links to sources of information used about unprecedented cold snaps. So, the links:

Chronicle of the Byzantine Theophanes from Diocletian to the kings Michael and his son Theophylact (can be downloaded on my former website, below the bases)
http://livehistory.ru/forum.html?func=view&catid=18&id=6

Vardapet Ayrivansky chronograph
http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/rus11/Mhitar/frametext1.htm

Chronograph Russian

Retelling of the book by E.P. Borisenkov, V.M. Pasetsky “The Thousand-Year Chronicle of Extraordinary Natural Phenomena”
http://www.randewy.ru/gml/meteo11.html

"Climatology" page on Igor Garshin's website.
http://garshin.ru/evolution/geology/geological-evolution.html

Vadim Vadimovich kindly points to the following sites:

- “Byzantine Chronicle”
http://www.anapa-oskar.ru/ch1_upominanij_o_severo_vostochnom_prichernomore-11.html

Http://www.stengazeta.net/article.html?article=1977

http://gochs.info/p85.htm

AND NOW TO THE ESSENCE OF THE QUESTION

In my database of catastrophic events, there are 51 reports of severe cold events and 107 reports of severe frosts. But the greatest interest is evidence of the freezing of the southern seas - the Black, Adriatic and Mediterranean, as well as the Nile Delta and the non-freezing soda Lake Van (Hlatskoye Sea).

The problem is that these record cold snaps recorded in chronicles, chronicles and chronographs do not coincide with scientific data. 11 of the 14 winters in which freezing of the southern seas is documented are outside the Little Ice Age. Here is the chart for this period.

And here is the evidence; 79% of evidence is in the “temperature optimum”.
401 in the winters of 401 and 801 the waves of the Black Sea “hardened”
696 The Khlat sea is frozen
739 Severe winters also occurred in 739, when the Bosporus froze
742 “And the winter was fierce: the Pontic Sea froze by 30 cubits”
762 (l. m. 6255, r. h. 755) part of the sea one hundred miles from the shore turned into stone thirty cubits deep, and the same happened from Zikkhia to the Danube, from the Kufis river to the Dniester and Dnieper and to the Dead gates, from all other shores to Mesimvria and Media
763 In the winter of 763-764, the Black Sea froze completely: it was possible to ride a sleigh on the thick ice, “like on land”
801 in the winters of 401 and 801 the waves of the Black Sea “hardened”
829 Ice bound the Nile Delta
859 The Adriatic Sea was so frozen that it was possible to walk to Venice
1010 - 1011 Terrible cold reached Africa, where the lower reaches of the Nile River were covered with ice
1011 The waters of the Black Sea were frozen, even the Bosphorus froze. When the cold wave reached North Africa, even the Nile River was covered with ice.
1210 -1211 in Venice, carts walked along the frozen Adriatic Sea
1326 the entire Mediterranean Sea froze
1601 sleigh rides across the Black Sea to Constantinople
1709, in the vicinity of Venice, the Adriatic Sea became covered with “standing ice”
1754 canals froze in Venice, ice in the Black Sea straits area

There are 18 dates in total: 401, 696, 739, 742, 762, 763, 764, 801, 829, 859, 1010, 1011, 1210, 1211, 1326, 1601, 1709, 1754. However, there are slightly fewer winters on these dates - only 14 - for an obvious reason: winters span two calendar years.

And 11 out of 14 of these winters, that is, 79%, occur in the so-called. “medieval temperature optimum” is an exceptionally warm period. This is what the top graph looks like compared to the trend in the dates of major cold snaps recorded in the chronicles.

Thus, there is a serious conflict between the data of scientists, glaciologists and climatologists, on the one hand, and the data of historians, on the other.

Not long ago, a fairly powerful agency, the IPCC, became involved in this conflict. Here is a quote from Wikipedia.

“...known as the second climatic optimum, the medieval climatic optimum. The existence of this period in the Northern Hemisphere (Europe and Siberia) in the 8th-13th centuries with temperatures more than 1°C higher than modern ones (in Greenland - up to 2°C) is not in doubt.
A number of experts dispute global warming during the minor optimum. For example, the position of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) changed from recognizing to not recognizing the medieval optimum between 1990 and 2001 (see comparison of temperature graphs from IPCC reports on the right). One of the leading proponents of the theory of anthropogenic global warming (AGW), Michael Mann, wrote on June 4, 2003: “It would be good to try to limit the imaginary medieval warm period, although we do not yet have a hemispheric temperature reconstruction for that time.” Critics of the AGP argue that proponents of the theory have unreasonably underestimated the temperatures of the medieval warm period in order to declare modern temperatures to be unprecedentedly high."

Suspicions about the political bias of the IPCC have existed for a long time. Conclusions about humanity's contribution to the level of carbon dioxide. The gross (already recognized) errors of the IPCC in expert assessments of the melting of the Himalayan glaciers also cause bewilderment. It seems very likely that this structure to some extent serves the interests of large financial structures in Europe.

However, I think the IPCC will win, glaciologists will be forced to reconsider their views on the medieval “temperature optimum”, and the consequences of this for us are difficult to predict.

no..I’m hot..I’m sitting in shorts and a T-shirt and eating ice cream...I don’t remember the last time I was cold:)))) my body is like that:)))

beer will freeze at -5....hold it for 5-6 hours

There is a condition when there is severe stress... the so-called cold sweat, when you seem to be shaking from the cold, but you are all wet

This means the depth of the well is more than half a meter. Ground temperature +4 degrees. “warm” water rises and prevents it from freezing on the surface.

if I meet a coachman I know, and even if I don’t know him, I’ll still ask if he freezes when he’s sober...

Do you know what my childhood dream is? To build the largest and best rehabilitation center for animals......as a child, this dream warmed me, but now I understand that it is practically impossible to fulfill it......The topic of animals is the most relevant for me, and at the same time sick at the same time.....My boyfriend, when we just started dating, was afraid to rent an apartment because he claimed that all the animals I met on my way would live with us........Damn, I had to grow up... .sometimes pretend that everything is ok, and look away from his eyes full of tears, although he knows anyway... But I can say with confidence that I will not pass by a dying animal, no matter what the cost.... Many people say that this is stupid, perhaps... but it is.

40% -28.9C.
56% -36C.
Yes, you don’t need to freeze it, but drink it))

In winter, it is best to fill the engine with synthetic oil marked 0W30, 0W40 or 5W40. You can use slightly less frost-resistant, but cheaper semi-synthetic or hydrocracking oil 5W40. Inexpensive mineral oils 10W40, 15W40 and others are optimal for spring, summer and early autumn.

It's not that simple. A water-ethyl solution does not have an exact freezing point. The ice from the water begins to freeze. The alcohol level in the remaining solution increases. The freezing temperature of the solution will already be lower.. And like this, up to the freezing temperature pure alcohol. A hundred and something there..
There is a way to purify moonshine - freezing. Water with all sorts of impurities freezes, and the alcohol is poured off. Only it freezes not in pieces, but in ice porridge.
40-degree temperatures begin to thicken somewhere around -27 degrees. Maybe earlier. Depends on the presence of freezing catalysts in the bottle. Around which ice will freeze. Dye for example... all sorts of impurities.

The unity of the African Nile along its entire length gives the river a unique role as a bridge across different climatic zones.

Nile length

Resembling a writhing snake, it spread its loops, according to the latest data, over 6,695 kilometers. The tail “grows” just south of the equator, and the wide head-delta is lowered into the Mediterranean Sea at thirty degrees north latitude. From this distance, the path of the Nile itself exceeds 3,500 kilometers. Thus, the Nile has now won the competition for the right to top the list of world rivers from the Mississippi and the Amazon, although comparisons, especially with the latter, are relative.

Source of the Nile

The hilly terrain east of Lake Tanganyika is noticeably drier than the surrounding plains; The red rocks are covered with bushes and woodlands. A stone's throw from the village of Kikizi in Burundi, several streams form the Luvironza River. It presents a rather pitiful sight, but is considered the most distant full-fledged source from the delta, from which the Nile irrigates a basin of approximately 2,868,000 square kilometers. The Luvironza is one of the upper tributaries of the Tanzanian Kagera, which in turn descends into tropical rainforest, first along the border of Tanzania and Rwanda, and then, turning sharply to the east, separating Tanzania and Uganda.

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At the end of the journey, it flows violently, like a water slide in a water park, into the world's largest Lake Victoria. And the full-fledged Nile emerges from Victoria and from here it steadily moves north, through Uganda and Sudan - to Egypt. So, breaking out of Victoria near the city of Jinja, the main industrial center of Uganda, and passing the equator, it falls into a narrow gorge, where it writhes with rapids.

Sandwiched between the rocks, Big Hapi gains its highest speed and does not lose it until the lake of Victoria's wife, Prince Albert. Having passed the border between Uganda and Sudan, the Nile of Africa receives the name Bahr el-Jebel, and then, merging with the Bahr el-Ghazal River and many smaller tributaries, it becomes the White Nile (Bahr el-Abyad). Meanwhile, the open woodlands give way to endless expanses of savannah, where only rare acacia trees break the even horizon line. The climax comes in Khartoum, where the White Nile connects with the Blue Nile (Bahr el-Azraq), which flowed here from Ethiopia, from Lake Tana. Now there are 330 kilometers left until the last tributary, the Atbara, - it is she, also flowing from the Ethiopian mountains, that is considered the main carrier of the famous black silt, from which an entire civilization grew. Now Neil again changes his temper to a stormy one and writes out a huge S-shaped loop.

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Here he passes his famous rapids, the first - north of Khartoum, the last (sixth) - near Aswan, where the ascetic mountain ranges suddenly part and a “full-fledged” Valley opens to the eye - a flat hollow, bordered by pink hills at sunset. Surrounded by the Libyan and Arabian deserts, it stretches from here for 840 kilometers - to the delta, the second in area in the world after the Brahmaputrogang. Photos taken from space look like this: a thin green braid, having made several sweeping loops, dissolves into the fawn color of the desert. The population density map will show a thin red stripe crowded on a fertile valley among the sands - snow-white, that is, deserted. From a zoogeographical point of view, the Nile falls into two unequal regions, the boundary between which is crossed by its flow south of the Tropic of Cancer, but north of Khartoum.

In the south is the Ethiopian region, including most Africa, to the north - the Palearctic, which includes a very significant part of Eurasia. A bridge of constant microclimate connecting the spaces from Lake Victoria to the Mediterranean coast. The living conditions there are approximately the same, but they are strikingly different from everything around.

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Fauna of the Nile

Along the entire course of the Nile you can find tropical animals and plants that are in no way characteristic of the Palaearctic. Along the entire course of this river, as in the rivers of tropical Africa, there are unique fish of the elephant snout family. The well-known Nile crocodiles and hippos - classic inhabitants of the tropics - could swim into the delta before the construction of the Aswan Dam. In addition, the Nile is the most important axis of movement for migratory birds. Its meridionally oriented bed serves as an excellent reference point for those who, without a compass, want to move strictly south or north: for waders and pelicans, storks and swallows, using the Nile as the Road of Life.