Section 1. Ancient Greek literature

Practical lesson No. 1

Topic: Folklore period. Ancient mythology

Target: to consolidate students’ knowledge of the essence of myth, to form a system of knowledge on ancient mythology, to consider and analyze the main mythological plots that are classics of world art.

Issues for discussion

1. Myth and its features. Myth and ritual, myth and legend, myth and fairy tale. Features of mythological consciousness.

2. Pantheon of ancient Greek gods: Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Hades, Demeter, Hestia, Ares, Hephaestus, Aphrodite, Eros, Athena, Apollo, Artemis, Hermes, Dionysus, Master (characteristics and main mythological subjects).

3. Ancient Greek heroes and their exploits (Prometheus, Perseus, Sisyphus, Hercules, Theseus, Jason, Achilles).

Practical task

2. Using LES, establish the origin and essence of the concepts: “myth”, “ritual”, “mythological thinking”, “syncretism of thinking”.

Main literature

additional literature

2. Gilenson, B.A. History of ancient literature: Textbook for students of philological faculties of pedagogical universities: In 2 books. - Book 2. Ancient Rome / B.A. Gilenson. – M.: Flinta: Nauka, 2002. – 384 p.

Practical lesson No. 2

Topic: Heroic epic of Homer

Target: mastering the specifics of the epic type of verbal creativity, its genre embodiment; strengthening in practice the skills of working with the texts of Homer’s poems, the ability to analyze their artistic features.

Issues for discussion

1. Homer. "Iliad" and "Odyssey". Historical and mythological origins of the Homeric epic.

2. “The Iliad” as a military-heroic story about the Trojan War.

3. “Odyssey” as a fabulously everyday poem (transpositions, composition).

4. Features of the epic style (retardation, digressions, comparisons, epithets, hexameter).

5. “The Homeric Question.” Synthesis of different approaches in the modern interpretation of poems.

Additional tasks

1. Extract quotes from the text of the poem “Iliad” describing the heroes: Achilus, Hector, Priam, Paris, Agamemnon, Minelaus, Ajax, Diomedes, Nestor; female images: Helen, Andromache, Hecuba. Identify constant epithets.

2. Extract quotes from the text of the poem that characterize Odysseus, Telemachus, and Penelope.

3. Creative task: construct a diagram of epic genres and develop their “dialogue” about their meaning.

Textual analysis of Homer's Iliad

(epic poetics)

Plan for analyzing Homer's work

1. How is the content of the song related to the main theme. What is its place in the composition of the entire poem?

2. How is reality reflected (the worldview of the ancient Greeks, social relations, ethical and religious norms, pictures of everyday life)?

3. How are characters revealed (individual and typical traits of the hero, features of psychologism)?

4. Anthropomorphism and burlesque in the depiction of gods.

5. What signs of folklore are there in the song (repetitions, common places, constant epithets, etc.)?

6. What examples of Homeric style can be seen in the song (objectivity, disinterest, retardation, archaization, hyperbolization, monumentalism, sublime vocabulary)?

7. Determine the artistic function of comparisons (1-2 examples).

Main literature

1. Gilenson, B. A. History of foreign literature from antiquity to mid-19th century: textbook. / B.A. Gilenson. – M.: YURAYT, 2014. – 904 p.

additional literature

1. Anpetkova-Sharova, G.G. Ancient literature: Textbook. aid for students Philol. fak. higher textbook institutions / G.G. Anpetkova-Sharova, V.S. Durov; Ed. V.S. Durova. – 2nd ed., rev. – St. Petersburg: Faculty of Philology of St. Petersburg State University; M.: Academy, 2005. – 480 p.

2. Gilenson B.A. History of ancient literature: Textbook for students of philological faculties of pedagogical universities: In 2 books. Book 2. Ancient Rome / B.A. Gilenson. – M.: Flinta: Nauka, 2002. – 384 p.

3. Foreign writers. Bibliographic Dictionary: In 2 hours – Part 1. A-L / ed. N.P. Michalska. – M.: Education: Textbook. lit., 1997. – 476 p.

4. Losev, A.F. Ancient literature: Textbook for higher education / ed. A.A. Tahoe-Godi / A.F. Losev. – M.: CheRo; Mn.: Asar LLC, 2001. – 543 p.

5. Samarin, R.M. Foreign literature / R.M. Samarin. – M.: Higher. school, 1991. – 368 p.

6. Tronsky, I.M. History of ancient literature (any publication) // http://centant.spbu.ru/sno/lib/tron/index.htm

7. Khalizev, V.E. Theory of literature / V.E. Khalizev. – M.: Higher School, 2002. – 437 p.

The immortal poems “Iliad” and “Odyssey” are the first monuments of literature in all of Europe, and therefore the first works of ancient Greek literature known to us.

The very identity of the author causes debate to this day, since almost nothing is known about the ancient storyteller Homer. There is a theory that they lived in the 8th century BC. and was blind. And his two famous poems were most likely written down in the 6th century BC.

Homer's Iliad: plot and meaning

The poem "Iliad" talks about Trojan War, and the name suggests that in ancient times Troy was called Ilion. The war itself is not shown in full in the poem; the poem does not talk about the reasons for the outbreak of the war, since this was known to all Greeks. The plot of the poem covers the 10th year of the war, the events take place in the last fifty days. The poem tells about the indestructible and brave warrior Achilles, who was the son of the ancient Greek sea goddess Thetis. The Greek king Agamemnon takes away his captive and this angers Achilles. He leaves his army and refuses to participate in the war.

This is very beneficial for the army of Troy, their prince Hector boldly opposes them, and in this battle Achilles’ brother, young Patroclus, who put on the armor of his mighty brother, dies. This drives Achilles into such despair that he takes part in the battle again and defeats the equally brave Hector. Blinded by anger, Achilles ties the body of the deceased to his chariot and brutally drags it behind him. Hercules' father, Priam, goes to Achilles to beg on his knees for his son's body and to bury him with dignity. The poem ends with the burial of Prince Hector.

For a long time, the events described in the Iliad were considered simply an interesting legend and fiction, but recently archaeologists managed to find a layer of ancient cities, which Homer called Ilion.

Homer's Odyssey - continuation of the Iliad

The poem "Odyssey" can be considered a continuation of the "Iliad", because it tells about the long-awaited return home of one of the heroes of the Trojan Battle - the king of the island of Ithaca Odysseus. The poem tells about what the Achaean hero had to endure during his wanderings, how many misfortunes and dangers he encountered on his way home. Odysseus and his companions fell into the hands of the evil one-eyed cyclops Polyphemus, sailed past the island of the Sirens, who lured sailors with their enchanting voice into the abyss of death, and found themselves in a strait between two rocks on which the monsters Scylla and Charybdis lived.

The protagonist's wanderings continued for ten whole years, and twenty years have passed since his departure for the Trojan War. During this time, many men wanted to marry his wife Penelope in order to take over his throne. The image of Odysseus's wife is a faithful and devoted woman who does not believe that her husband is dead and is waiting for his return. But when he appears at home, Penelope does not recognize him and invites the men to shoot her husband with a bow, and the one who manages to do this will become her husband. Only Odysseus succeeded, and only after that he opens up to Penelope.

The heroes of the Odyssey are more complex, their characters are more subtle, and the relationships between them are more intricate than in the poem Iliad, so the first poem is considered more original.

In the Iliad, the Olympian gods are the same characters as people. Their transcendental world, depicted in the poem, is created in the image and likeness of the earthly world. The gods were distinguished from ordinary people only by divine beauty, extraordinary strength, the gift of transforming into any creature and immortality.

Like people, the supreme deities often quarreled among themselves and even fought. A description of one of these quarrels is given at the very beginning of the Iliad, when Zeus, sitting at the head of the feasting table, threatens to beat his jealous and irritable wife Hera because she dared to object to him. Lame Hephaestus persuades his mother to come to terms and not quarrel with Zeus over mortals. Thanks to his efforts, peace and fun reign again. Golden-haired Apollo plays the lyre, accompanying a choir of beautiful muses. At sunset, the feast ends and the gods disperse to their palaces, erected for them on Olympus by the skillful Hephaestus.

The poems consisted of songs, each of which could be performed separately, as an independent story about one or another event in the life of its heroes, but all of them are somehow related to the Trojan War.

The cause of the Trojan War was the abduction of Helen, the wife of King Menelaus, by Paris, the son of the Trojan king Priam. Insulted, Menelaus called on other kings for help. Among them were Diomedes, Odysseus, Ajax and Achilles. The Achaean warriors occupied the plain between Troy and the sea, pulled ships ashore and set up their camp, from which they made sorties, plundering and destroying small settlements. The siege of Troy lasted 10 years, but the poems describe only the last year of the war. (Here it should be noted that Homer calls the Greeks Achaeans, also calling them Danaans and Argives, and not Greeks or even Hellenes, as the Greeks themselves began to call themselves later).

Starting from the third song of the Iliad, there is a description of the battles between the Achaeans and Trojans. The gods actively intervene in these battles between individual heroes. The poem ends with a description of the solemn burial of the heroic leader of the Trojans, Hector.

In the Iliad bright features phenomena of real life and everyday life of ancient Greek tribes are reproduced. What predominates, of course, is a description of wartime life, and the poem is full of realistic depictions of scenes of death, cruel mutilations, and pre-death convulsions. However, the battle is most often depicted not as a mass battle, but as a duel between individual heroes, distinguished by strength, valor and martial art. But the exploits of the heroes, so colorfully described by Homer, do not obscure all the horrors of war from the poet’s gaze. He reproduces scenes of violence and merciless cruelty of the victors in bright and accusatory realistic colors. Homer has no sympathy for the cruelty of war. He contrasts them with such episodes full of human feelings as the farewell of the Trojan leader Hector to his wife Andromache before the decisive battle for his hometown, the cry of Queen Hecuba or the prayers of King Priam in the tent of Achilles. Here, the poet forces his beloved hero, Achilles, indomitable in anger, raging in a thirst for revenge, to soften and shed tears along with Priam. An equally serious counterbalance to the vivid depiction of fierce battles between the warring parties is a detailed description of the scenes of peaceful life that were depicted by Hephaestus on the shield of Achilles. The poet speaks with great warmth about fat fields with ears laden with grain, about numerous herds grazing in the valleys, about lush vineyards, and, most importantly, about the hardworking people who created all this abundance, enjoying the fruits of their labors and the peace of a peaceful life.

The duration of the Iliad covers 51 days. But from this number we must subtract those days on which events are not displayed, they are only mentioned (the plague in the camp of the Achaeans, the feast of the Olympians among the Ethiopians, the burial of heroes, the outrage of Achilles against Hector, the preparation of firewood for Hector’s fire). Thus, the Iliad mainly depicts only 9 days from last year Trojan War.

HOMER

(c. 8th century BC)

[biography briefly]

Singer of the Trojan War

No reliable information has been preserved about the greatest classic of ancient Greek and world literature, Homer. The poet's life time has not been precisely established. The ancient Greek historian Herodotus believed that Homer lived in the 9th century. BC e. Most scientists attribute his activities to the 8th-7th centuries. BC e. The place of birth of the creator is also controversial. In Greece, seven cities claimed the right to be called his homeland: Kuma, Smyrna, Chios, Paphos, Colophon, Argos and Athens.

Exist sculptural images Homer, representing the poet as a blind old man. Philologist N. Marr translated his name as “blind,” because among some peoples the word “Homer” meant a person deprived of sight, as well as a storyteller endowed with the gift of divination. However, modern literary scholars doubt that the numerous vivid descriptions of the Iliad and Odyssey could have been created by a blind person. Probably, the idea of ​​Homer as a blind man is explained by the belief of the ancients that the blind have special spiritual vision and are closer to the world of the gods.

The lack of information about Homer already in Antiquity gave rise to doubts about his existence. Some literature experts were convinced that under the name of Homer a group of ancient poets, the Aeds, were united, who created small songs that were eventually combined into the poems “Iliad” and “Odyssey.” However, the mechanical connection of songs could not form such integral and complex creations. Therefore, most likely, they had one author who reworked the songs of his predecessors, subordinating them to a single artistic concept.

The plots of the Iliad and Odyssey are taken from the cycle of Greek myths about the Trojan War - the Greek campaign against the city of Troy (its other name is Ilion). According to myths, the Trojan prince Paris stole treasures and his beautiful wife Helen from the king of Sparta Menelaus. The insulted Menelaus and his brother, the Mycenaean king Agamemnon, gathered an army to march on Troy. Agamemnon became the leader of the Greeks. For ten years the king unsuccessfully besieged Ilion. The Greeks managed to penetrate the city only thanks to cunning: they hid in a wooden horse. Thus Troy was captured and burned, and Helen was returned to Menelaus. The path of the victors to their homeland turned out to be incredibly difficult: some died at sea, others wandered for years. 1

1 Apotheosis (from the Greek apotheosis - “deification”) - glorification, exaltation of a person, event, phenomenon.

We express our opinion

Consider the reproduction of the painting by J.-O.-D. Ingres "The Apotheosis of Homer".

On the electronic educational resource interactive.ranok.com.ua, read information about the allegorical composition of the work.

In your opinion, what idea did the painter want to convey with his canvas?

The plot of the Iliad

The Iliad opens with the poet’s address to the muse, the patroness of poetry:

Wrath, O goddess, sing to Achilles, son of Peleus...

The anger of Achilles forms the plot and theme of the poem. The anger was caused by the act of the Greek leader Agamemnon, who took away the captive Briseis from Achilles. The offended hero refused to participate in the siege of Ilion and turned to the supreme god Zeus with a prayer to help the Trojans defeat the Greeks. God heeded the prayer: military success abandoned the Greeks. Their defeat made a grave impression on Achilles' friend Patroclus. The warrior asked Achilles to let him go into battle and received consent. Patroclus, dressed in the armor of Achilles to intimidate his enemies, pushed back the Trojans, who had already approached the Greek ships. In the midst of the battle, Patroclus died at the hands of the Trojan Hector.

Achilles fell into despair and was overcome with guilt. He reconciled with Agamemnon and turned his anger towards the Trojans. A new battle ensued, in which the gods who descended from Olympus took part. The Trojans ran to the city gates. There, near the impregnable walls, Achilles and Hector fought in a duel. Achilles avenged his friend by killing Hector. He tied the body of the defeated enemy to a chariot and dragged it across the field.

At night, Hector’s elderly father, the Trojan king Priam, appeared in Achilles’ tent. Falling at Achilles' knees, the king begged to give him his son's body in order to bury him with honor. The father's grief softened Achilles' heart, and he fulfilled the old man's request. The Iliad ends with Hector's burial, when the theme of the protagonist's anger has been exhausted.

Homer enriched the described plot with a large number of episodes from Greek heroic tales and myths not related to Troy. For example, the poem mentions the campaign of the Argives 1 against Thebes and the exploits of Hercules.

Image of Achilles

The central image of the Iliad is Achilles (Achilles), the son of the Thessalian king Peleus and the sea goddess Thetis. As the prominent scientist of the 20th century A. Losev noted, Achilles is one of the most complex figures in the entire 1

1 Argives are inhabitants of the ancient Greek province of Argos. In Homer the Argives,

like the Achaeans, all Greeks are called.

ancient literature. The complexity of this image lies in the fact that its character combines two opposing features. On the one hand, he is angry, quick-tempered, vindictive, and merciless. Wanting to avenge his friend, he mocks Hector’s body. But at the same time, Achilles has a tender, loving heart. He “sheds hot tears” over the corpse of his faithful comrade.

Achilles knows about his own death under the walls of Troy 1. Despite this, he still participates in the Greek campaign, which gives his image greatness and tragedy.

The image of Achilles is the ancient ideal of a warrior-hero: sometimes obsessed with passions, but courageous, selflessly devoted to friendship.

INTERESTING FACT

Troy really existed. The city was located in Asia Minor, on the Troad Peninsula, off the coast Aegean Sea(now this is the Turkish province of Canakkale).

Many scientists tried to find Troy. The German entrepreneur and self-taught archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann succeeded in this. In the 1870s. He found on the site of ancient Troy the remains of successively arose settlements, including two fortresses. According to myths and the Homeric epic, the city was burned. Excavations confirmed the myth: traces of fire were found in both fortresses.

Poetics of 2 Homer poems

One of the main features of an epic tale is thoroughness and leisurely presentation. The action in Homer's epic is slowed down by numerous detailed descriptions weapons

1 The oracle predicts to Achilles that he will die during the Trojan War from a wound in the heel - the only vulnerable area on his body.

2 Poetics - here: a system of artistic means and techniques used by a writer to create the artistic world of a separate work and in his work as a whole.

heroes, cooking, ship equipment and the like, repetitions of poems and entire episodes.

In Homer's poems, constant epithets are widely used. The leaders are characterized as divine, nurtured by the gods, the Greeks are beautifully legged, Zeus is a lightning striker, a cloud suppressor, Achilles is fleet-footed, Odysseus is multi-cunning. Epithets are “assigned” to the heroes and do not depend on the situation: Achilles is called “swift-footed” when he rushes swiftly across the battlefield and when he speaks in a public assembly.

Homer is a master of extended comparisons. In the description of the battle for the body of Patroclus (“Iliad”), vivid pictures of nature and life are created with the help of comparisons. The battle behind those carrying the body is “Stormy, like a fire directed at a city of people: / Flashing suddenly, it devours everything...”

The artistic perfection of Homer's poems already in Antiquity created for their author the fame of an unsurpassed poet. This glory has not faded to this day.

ILIAD

(Excerpts 1)

Canto Twenty-Second The Killing of Hector

[Achilles mercilessly avenges the death of Patroclus. Achilles' rage forced the Trojans to take refuge behind the city walls. Only Hector remained at the gates of Troy. Seeing Achilles, he ran. Achilles rushed after him. At this time, on Olympus, Zeus weighed the opponents' lots. Hector’s lot turned out to be more difficult: he was destined to die. Hector stopped his run and turned to Achilles.]

250 “Son of Peleus! I don’t intend to run away from you anymore!

Three times before the city of Priam I ran, not daring to meet your attacker; now my heart commands me to stand and fight with you; I will kill or be killed!

First, let us call upon the gods as testimony; the best will be

255 Gods are witnesses of oaths and guardians of our conditions:

I will not dishonor your body when the Thunderer grants me to resist and tear out your spirit with a weapon; Only the glorious armor from you, Achilles, I will strip off,

I will give the body to the Myrmidons 2; and you fulfill this agreement.”

1 You can find the full text of the work at interactive.ranok.com.ua.

2 Myrmidons (Myrmidons) - an Achaean tribe that lived in Thessaly, in the domains of Peleus and Achilles. At Troy, the Myrmidons were led by Achilles.

260 Fleet-footed Achilles looked at him menacingly and cried out: “Hector, hated enemy, do not offer treaties to me!

There is not and will not be any union between lions and people;

Wolves and lambs cannot be friends with the consent of the heart;

They are always hostile and malicious against each other, -

265 So love is impossible between us; There can be no agreements between us until one, prostrate, satisfies the fierce god Ares with his blood!

Remember all the art of war! Today you must be an excellent spear fighter and a fearless warrior!

270 There is no longer any escape for you; under my spear Tritogen 1 Will soon tame you; and you will pay at once for the grief of my friends, whom you savagely beat with copper!”

He roared and, with a powerful shake, sent out a long-shaded pike. At the right time, seeing her, helmet-shining Hector ran away;

275 He quickly sank to the ground, and the peak that flew over him pierced the ground; but, having snatched it away, Pallas 2 again gave it to Achilles, invisible to Hector, the horseman of Troy.

Hector loudly exclaimed to Peleev’s glorious son: “The blow is in vain! and in no way, Pelid 3, like immortals,

280 You did not learn my share from Zeus, although you told me;

But you were talkative and cunning with your speeches in front of me, with the goal that I, becoming timid, would lose both courage and strength.

No, I don’t intend to run; You will not thrust a spear into my spine, but pierce my chest with my face directed straight at you,

285 If God judged! But beware of spears too

Copper! If only, sharp, you would take it all into your body!

The bloody war would have been easier for the sons of Ilion,

If only I would crush you - you, their cruelest destruction!

He roared - and, powerfully shaking, he threw his long-shaded spear,

290 And he did not throw it: he struck Achilles in the middle of the shield;

But the shield reflected the weapon far away. Hector was upset when he saw that the spear flew out of his hands uselessly,

1 Tritogena (also Tritonida) is one of the names of the fertility goddess Athena, associated with her birthplace - the shore of Lake Triton.

2 Pallas is the nickname of Athena.

3 Pelid, also Peleion (Greek: “descended from Peleus”) - in Greek mythology, the name of Achilles on his father's side.

He stood and lowered his eyes: he had no other spear.

295 Requires a new sharp dart: no Deiphobus.

Hector comprehended this with his soul, and this is what he said:<...>

300 “Near me there is only Death! and I can no longer be terrible! No escape! Thus, without a doubt, the gods judged,

Zeus and Phoebus born from Zeus 2; the merciful before Often delivered me: fate finally befalls me!

But I will not perish in vain, I will not fall into dust without glory;

305 I will do something great that posterity will hear!”

So he said - and a sophisticated knife was pulled out of the vagina,

Hanging from the left side, the knife is huge and heavy;

From his place, tense, he rushed like an unpaired eagle, If he suddenly falls from behind gray clouds onto the steppe,

310 A gentle lamb or a timid greedy hare to steal, - Hector rushed like that, waving a deadly knife. The swift Pelid also sprang, and the spirit of his Stormy wrath was filled; he placed his magnificent shield in front of his chest, marvelously decorated; the helmet on his head is four-bladed

315 The light one sways, the lush golden mane undulates,

Thickly Hephaestus 3 spilled around the high ridge.

But, like a star shining among the stars in the darkness of the night,

Hesperus 4, who is the most beautiful and brightest in the sky, -

So Pelid's spear sparkled, with which

320 V right hand he shook, planning his life on Hector, looking for places on his beautiful body for sure blows.

But the hero’s entire body was covered with copper-plated armor, Magnificent, which he stole, having overcome the power of Patroclus. Only where the neck 5 keys are connected with ramen, larynx

325 A part was exposed, a place where death of the soul is inevitable:

There, Achilles flew in and struck Priamid with his spear;

A deadly sting passed straight through the white neck;

Only the crushing ash tree did not cut his larynx so that he, dying, could utter a few words;

1 Deiphobus - son of Priam, beloved brother of Hector. Athena took on his image to encourage Hector to fight Achilles.

2 Phoebus is the second name of the god of the sun and poetry Apollo, the patron saint of the Trojans.

3 Hephaestus is the god of fire, the son of Zeus and Hera. He forged Achilles' weapons and armor.

4 Hesperus is the deity of the evening star.

5 Neck (obsolete) - neck.

330 He burst into dust, and Achilles cried out loudly, triumphantly: “Hector, you killed Patroclus - and thought to remain alive! You weren’t afraid of me either when I was moving away from battles,

The enemy is reckless! But his avenger, incomparably stronger than you, I remained behind the Achaean courts,

335 I am the one who broke your knees! Birds and dogs will tear you apart for shame, and the Argives will bury him.”

Breathing languidly, helmet-shining Hector answered him: “I conjure you and your family at your feet with my life.

ABOUT! Don’t let me be tormented by the dogs of the Myrmidons;

340 Copper, valuable gold, demand as much as you want;

Your father and venerable mother will send you redemption;

Just return the body to the house, so that the Trojans and the Trojan women, giving the last honor, will put me on fire in the house.” Looking gloomily at him, fleet-footed Achilles said:

345 “It’s in vain, dog, you hug my legs and pray for your family! I myself, if I had listened to the anger, would have torn you to pieces, I would have devoured your raw body - then you did it to me!

No, a human son will not drive you away from your head

Devouring dogs! If ten and twenty times me

350 They will bring magnificent gifts and promise so many more;

If the King of Ilium Priam orders you to be weighed for gold, and then - on your funeral bed, Mother Hecuba will not mourn your birth;

The birds will tear your corpse to pieces and the dogs of the myrmidons!”

355 Giving up the spirit, helmet-shining Hector proclaimed to him: “I knew you: I had a presentiment that you would not be touched by my prayer: you have an iron heart in your chest.

But tremble, lest I be God's wrath for you On that day, when Alexander 1 and Phoebus the arrow-maker,

360 No matter how powerful you are, you will be overthrown at the Skeian Gate 2!” Thus speaking, gloomy Death overshadows Hector:

Quietly the soul, leaving the lips, descends to Hades,

Crying for your share, leaving both youth and strength.

But to him, and to the deceased, the fleet-footed son Peleev 365 shouted again: “Die! and I will meet my inevitable death, whenever the Thunderer and the eternal gods send!”

So he said - and from the dead he tore out the murderous ash tree, threw it to the side and pulled off the armor from Dardanides 3, drenched in blood.<...>

(Translation by N. Gnedich)

1. You have read a fragment of one of the oldest works of European fiction. What impression did the poem excerpt make on you? What difficulties did you encounter while reading it? Have you turned to the links given on the pages of the textbook, without which it is not easy for a modern reader to understand the events described in the poem?

2. How does Hector appear in his address to Achilles? Why does the author focus on the fact that Hector ran around Troy three times? What made Hector stop? Does Hector understand what the duel with the best of the Greek warriors threatens him with? Support your point of view with quotes from the text.

3. What kind of mutual oath does Hector propose to take? What is Achilles' answer? What is the reason for this answer?

4. Find words in the text that explain Hector’s desire to destroy Achilles. What new facets of Hector’s image are revealed in this desire?

1 Alexander is the first name of Paris, son of Priam and brother of Hector. According to Greek mythology, when Priam already had numerous children from his marriage to Hecuba, she became pregnant and dreamed that she was giving birth to a burning torch, from which many snakes crawled out. The dream interpreters ordered her to kill the newborn so that he would not cause the death of his homeland. Hecuba gave birth to a boy, Alexander, and gave him to the guards to kill him. But out of pity, they threw it to the shepherds, who named the baby Paris.

2 Scaean Gate - the western gate of Troy.

3 Dardanides is a descendant of the mythical hero Dardan. The founder of Troy, Il., originated from Dardan.

5. Describe the course of the duel between Achilles and Hector. What qualities of a warrior does Hector display? Is he inferior to Achilles in strength and courage? Justify your answer.

6. Think about why Achilles wins the fight. In a form convenient for you - text or diagram - give your answer to this question. Discuss the answer options with your classmates.

7. Do you think it is possible to determine which side is on?

8. The main theme of the poem “Iliad” is the anger of Achilles. How does the author reveal this topic in the twenty-second song?

Learning to compare

9. Consider a reproduction of the painting by P. Rubens “Achilles kills Hector” (p. 28). How accurately do you think the painting by the great painter reproduces the events described in the poem? Justify your answer by referring to the text of the poem.

We invite you to discussion

10. Why did Achilles become the ideal warrior for the ancient Greeks? We express our opinion

11. Remember the material from the textbook article “Features of Ancient Literature.” Which of these features could you illustrate with examples from the Iliad?

12. What artistic features characteristic of the ancient epic did you see in the passages you read from the poem “The Iliad”? Summarize your observations and fill out the table “Poetics of the Iliad” in your notebook.

The plot of the poem "Odyssey"

The Odyssey describes the last, tenth, year of the wanderings of the main character, a participant in the Trojan War. The winner Odysseus returns to his own possessions - Ithaca. His long journey, complicated by numerous obstacles, is the central theme of the Odyssey.

In Ithaca, almost no one hoped that Odysseus would return. Noble citizens dreamed of taking the empty throne, wooed the wanderer's wife Penelope, spent his treasury and feasted in the royal palace. Meanwhile, the gods freed the hero, who had been held on the island by the nymph Calypso for seven years. Having made a raft, the wanderer set off into the open sea. The storm threw him onto the land of the Phaeacians. Here Odysseus found a warm welcome and told the local ruler about everything he saw during his wanderings: about the one-eyed giant - the cannibal Polyphemus, about the floating island of the wind god Aeolus, about the insidious sirens who lure travelers with captivating singing, and much more. Touched by the fate of Odysseus, who survived

Many trials and troubles, having lost his companions and his ships, the Phaeacians took him to Ithaca. There, unrecognized, in the guise of a beggar, he waited for two days for an opportunity to take revenge on Penelope’s suitors. The opportunity presented itself when Odysseus’s wife staged a shooting competition and presented her husband’s long bow to the contenders for her hand. No one could even pull the bowstring. Then Odysseus took the bow and struck all the contenders with arrows. Penelope, who had missed her husband for many years, was delighted to recognize him. The angry relatives of the suitors killed by Odysseus entered into battle with him, but with the help of Athena, the civil strife stopped, and peace came to Ithaca.

The plot of the Odyssey, unlike the Iliad, unfolds out of chronological sequence and contains digressions and returns to the starting point; the action of the work is transferred from one place to another.

The unifying principle, the figure that cements the motley series of incidents and persons of the epic into one artistic whole, is Odysseus - a hero with a complex character: he is a brave warrior, an ardent patriot, the greatest sufferer, a prudent owner, a wonderful family man and, at the same time, a resourceful cunning man.

(Excerpt 1)

Song Nine

[Odysseus landed his ship on the island of the Cyclops.

With twenty companions, he went to the cave of the giant Polyphemus to get food. His comrades advised him to take the food and return to the ship, but Odysseus did not listen to them: he wanted to meet the owner of the cave. Soon the giant appeared and blocked the entrance to the cave with a huge stone. Seeing the uninvited guests, he rudely asked who they were.

Odysseus spoke about himself and his comrades and expressed the hope that Polyphemus would show them due hospitality, as the gods commanded. Angrily, the Cyclops replied that he was not afraid of the wrath of Zeus, then he grabbed two of Odysseus’s companions and swallowed them. Having had his fill, Polyphemus fell asleep. Odysseus wanted to kill the sleeping Cyclops, but realized that this would doom himself and his comrades to certain death: they would not have the strength to move the huge stone blocking the entrance to the cave.

The Cyclops woke up and drove his herd to pasture, leaving Odysseus and his people in a cave filled with stones. Odysseus whittled out a sharp stake. When Polyphemus returned, the “cunning one” treated him to strong wine.]

355 Bowls. “Pour it for me,” he said, “and tell me your Name, so that I can prepare you a decent gift.”

We, the Cyclopes, also have luxurious clusters of grapes, Full vines, and Kronion himself fertilizes them with rain;

Your drink is pure ambrosia with sweet nectar.”

360 So he said, and I filled another cup with sparkling wine. He asked for more, and I gave the third to the madman.

The fire wine in the cannibal's head began to rustle.

I turned to him with a seductively sweet speech: “You, Cyclops, are curious to know my glorious name,

365 In order to treat me and give me the usual gift? I'm called Nobody; My mother and father gave me this name, and my comrades all call me that.”

The bestial cannibal answered me with an evil mockery: “Know, Nobody, my dear, that you will be the most

last

370 Eaten when I'm done with the others; here is my gift." Then he fell backwards, completely drunk; and a mighty neck hung to one side, and with all-conquering power Sleep took possession of him; He threw wine and pieces of human flesh out of his gaping mouth, having drunk too much.

375 Having taken out our stake, we put it on the fire with its tip;

He immediately burst into flames; Then I, having called my chosen comrades, encouraged them to be decisive with me in a dangerous matter. Our stake placed on the coals had already begun to give off a flame, having flared up, although it was damp; hastily

380 I took him out of the fire; comrades, bravely from both

They steeled their sides - the deity, of course, put courage in them; They grabbed the stake and with its red-hot tip they pressed it into the sleeping man’s eye.<...>

395 The cannibal howled wildly—the cave groaned from the howl.

In fear we rushed away; with unspeakable ferocity, tearing out the stake from the pierced eye, covered in boiling blood,

With a strong hand he threw it away from him; in a frenzy, he began to call the Cyclopes, who lived in the deep

400 Grottoes around and on mountain peaks kissed by the wind. Hearing the loud screams, the Cyclopes came running from everywhere;

They surrounded the entrance of the cave and asked: “Why did you call us all, Polyphemus? What's happened? Why did you interrupt our sweet sleep and the calm of the divine night?

405 Who boldly stole your goats and rams? Or are you dying yourself? But who is here destroying you by deception or force?” He answered them from a dark cave with a desperately wild roar: “Nobody! But by my mistake I am ruined; No one could harm me by force.” The Cyclopes cried out in their hearts:

410 “If no one, why are you the only one roaring like that? But if he is sick, then Zeus will do it, you cannot avoid it.

Call upon your father, Lord Poseidon, for help.”

This is what they said as they walked away. My Heart laughed inside me because I managed to save everyone by inventing everyone’s name.

415 Groaning heavily, grunting and groaning, groping the Walls with his hands, the Cyclops moved the rock away from the entrance, sat down in front of it and stretched out his huge arms, hoping that in the herd,

As he passes by, he will catch us all; Certainly,

The ferocious fool thought that I, too, was like him, without reason.

420 With a cautious mind I dreamed up and pondered a means, How to save myself and my vigorous comrades from certain Death; many tricks different ways My thoughts were in vain, but disaster was already close. This is what, out of duty, seemed most convenient to me: 425 There were large rams, covered with long hair,

Fat, powerful, in a herd; their fleece was agitated like silk. With my strong basts intertwined, I slowly snatched them out of the matting that served as a bed for the evil Cyclops,

I tied three rams each; the man was tied up under each

430 Middle, protected by the other two on the sides; for every Three there was one of our comrades; and I myself?.. A plump, tall, with luxurious wool was a ram in the herd; clutching his soft back, I hung in my arms under his rough Belly; and hands (letting them into the incredibly thick fleece)

435 He wrapped himself in long hair and patiently held on to it.

With trembling hearts we waited for the appearance of the divine Eos 1. The young Eos with purple fingers rose from the darkness:

All the males, goats and rams ran to the exit;

The wombs, still unfed, bleated pathetically in the corners,

440 Milk splashes from long nipples; their master, groaning in pain, touched with his hands everyone running past,

Lush backs; but, stupid, he was not able to guess,

What some had hidden under their wavy breasts; The last one was my ram; and with a slow step he walked, weighed down

445 Long hair and me, who was thinking about many things at that time. Having felt his back, the Cyclops began to talk to him:

“Are you my beautiful pet? Why did the last one leave the cave now? You weren't lazy and slow before. You were always the first to step majestically into the meadow.

450 To eat sweet-growing grass; At noon you were the first to run to the stream; and in front of everyone he returned to the cave; In the evening. Now you are the last to go; know, you yourself feel, Poor One, that my eye is no longer watching you; I am deprived of Bright vision by a vile vagabond; here he wines me

455 The mind became foggy; they call him Nobody; but he's still

He did not escape my power! Whenever, my friend, you could speak, you would say where the hated enemy hid; I would instantly crush his skull and scatter his brain throughout the cave, hitting him to the ground and tearing him apart; would take revenge

460 I am for the offense that Nobody, the evil robber,

Inflicted on me here.” Having said this, he set the ram free. Well, not far from the entrance of the cave and the outer fence, I was the first to stand on my feet, untied all the travelers, and immediately with them the whole herd of thin-legged goats and fat sheep

465 Collected; Through many detours we drove them to the seaside

To our ship. And it was sweet for our comrades to meet us, having escaped certain death; wanted about the dear dead

They cry; but, blinking their eyes to stop their crying, take the herd of goats and rams onto our ship immediately

470 I commanded: I wanted to move away from the shore into the sea.<...>

(Translation by V. Zhukovsky)

Reflecting on the text of a work of art

1. You have read one of the most famous episodes of the poem “The Odyssey”. What impression did he make on you? Why do you think this episode appeals to readers?

2. In Homer’s poems, the constant epithet “cunning” is used to characterize Odysseus. Give examples of Odysseus's cunning and wisdom shown in the episode with Polyphemus. Think about what modern words could replace the epithet.

We express our opinion

3. What artistic features characteristic of the ancient epic did you see in the passages you read from the poem “Odyssey”? Fill out the table “Poetics of the Odyssey” in your notebook.

Learning to compare

4. Expressively read the poem by the Ukrainian classic M. Rylsky “Yak Odksey, natomleniy blukannyam...”. What mood is conveyed in the work? Why do you think the poet used the image of Odysseus to express his feelings?

Yak Od^sey, weary of the blues Across the blue sea, I am weary of life—

The old falcon is coming,

Lost in the leaves and forgetting about everything.

I have my thoughts - chi ysh 1x - scurry around in a quiet sleep. The leaves are blinking,

Having fallen on the stovbur the bshiy vvdblisk of the sun,

I Lisa's little cat on the fly.

I'll fall asleep to the turbo-free rustling of the sky, so, slamming the ball,

I need to wake up my wife Navsshaya,

Strunka is the daughter of the Phaeatian king.

5. On the electronic educational resource interactive.ranok.com.ua, listen to a fragment from the opera “The Return of Ulysses 1 to the Homeland” by C. Monteverdi. In your opinion, did the composer succeed in conveying the majestic epic rhythm of Homer’s poem? Justify your answer.

This is textbook material

For most peoples, myths are composed primarily of gods. But Ancient Greece is an exception: the main, best part of them tells about the heroes. These are the grandchildren, sons, and great-grandchildren of the gods, born from mortal women. It was they who performed various feats, punished villains, destroyed monsters, and also participated in internecine wars. The gods, when the Earth became heavy from them, made sure that in the Trojan War the participants themselves destroyed each other. Thus the will of Zeus was accomplished. Many heroes died at the walls of Ilion.

In this article we will tell you about the work that Homer created - the Iliad. We will briefly outline its content, and we will also analyze this and another poem about the Trojan War - “The Odyssey”.

What is the Iliad about?

"Troy" and "Ilion" are two names of a great city located in Asia Minor, near the shores of the Dardanelles. The poem telling about the Trojan War is called the Iliad (Homera) by its second name. Among the people before her, there were only small oral songs like ballads or epics, telling about the exploits of these heroes. Homer, the blind legendary singer, composed a large poem from them and did it very skillfully: he selected only one episode and developed it in such a way that he made it a reflection of an entire heroic age. This episode is called "The Wrath of Achilles", who was the greatest Greek hero of the last generation. Homer's Iliad is mainly dedicated to him.

Who took part in the war

The Trojan War lasted 10 years. Homer's Iliad begins like this. Many Greek leaders and kings gathered on a campaign against Troy, with thousands of warriors, on hundreds of ships: in the poem their list takes up several pages. Agamemnon, ruler of Argos, that strongest of kings, was the chief of them. Menelaus, his brother (the war began for his sake), the ardent Diomedes, the mighty Ajax, the wise Nestor, the cunning Odysseus and others went with him. But the most agile, strong and brave was Achilles, the young son of Thetis, the sea goddess, who was accompanied by Patroclus, his friend. Priam, the gray-haired king, ruled the Trojans. His army was led by Hector, the king’s son, a valiant warrior. With him were Paris, his brother (the war began because of him), as well as many allies gathered from all over Asia. These were the heroes of Homer's poem "The Iliad". The gods themselves also took part in the battle: Silver-bowed Apollo helped the Trojans, and Hera, the queen of heaven, and Athena, the wise warrior, helped the Greeks. The Thunderer Zeus, the supreme god, watched the battles from high Olympus and carried out his will.

Start of the war

The war started like this. The wedding of Peleus and Thetis, the sea goddess, took place - the last marriage concluded between mortals and gods (the same one from which the hero Achilles was born). The goddess of discord abandoned at the feast Golden Apple, which was intended for the "most beautiful". Three people argued over him: Athena, Hera and Aphrodite. Paris, the Trojan prince, was ordered by Zeus to judge this dispute. Each of the goddesses promised him their gifts: Hera - to make him the king of the whole world, Athena - a sage and a hero, Aphrodite - the husband of the most beautiful of women. The hero decided to give the apple to the latter.

After this, Athena and Hera became sworn enemies of Troy. Aphrodite helped Paris to seduce Helen, the daughter of Zeus himself, who was the wife of King Menelaus, and take her to Troy. Once upon a time, the best heroes of Greece wooed her and agreed so as not to quarrel: let the girl herself choose the one she likes, and if someone else tries to fight her off, everyone else will declare war on him. Every young man hoped that he would be the chosen one. Helen's choice fell on Menelaus. Now Paris took her away from this king, and therefore all her former suitors went to war against this young man. Only the youngest of them did not woo the girl and went to war only to show his strength, valor, and win glory. This young man was Achilles.

First attack of the Trojans

Homer's Iliad continues. The Trojans attack. They are led by Sarpedon, the son of the god Zeus, the last of his sons on earth, as well as Hector. Achilles coldly watches from his tent as the Greeks flee and the Trojans approach their camp: they are about to set fire to the ships of their enemies. From above, Hera also sees how the Greeks are losing, and in desperation decides to deceive, thereby diverting the attention of Zeus. She appears before him in the girdle of Aphrodite, which arouses passion, and the god unites with Hera on the top of Ida. They are enveloped in a golden cloud, and the earth blooms with hyacinths and saffron. After this they fall asleep, and while Zeus sleeps, the Greeks stop the Trojans. But the dream of the supreme god is short-lived. Zeus awakens, and Hera trembles before his anger, and he calls on her to endure: the Greeks will be able to defeat the Trojans, but after Achilles pacifies his anger and goes into battle. Zeus promised this to the goddess Thetis.

Patroclus goes to battle

However, Achilles is not yet ready to do this, and Patroclus is sent to help the Greeks instead. It pains him to watch his comrades in trouble. Homer's poem "The Iliad" continues. Achilles gives the young man his armor, which the Trojans fear, as well as the warriors, a chariot drawn by horses that can prophesy and speak prophetic things. He calls on his comrade to repel the Trojans from the camp and save the ships. But at the same time he advises not to expose yourself to danger, not to get carried away by persecution. The Trojans, seeing the armor, were frightened and turned back. Then Patroclus could not stand it and began to pursue them.

The son of Zeus, Sarpedon, comes out to meet him, and the god, watching from above, hesitates: to save his son or not. But Hera says, let fate take its course. Sarpedon collapses like a mountain pine, and battle begins to boil around his body. Meanwhile, Patroclus is rushing further and further, to the very gates of Troy. Apollo shouts to him that the young man is not destined to take the city. He doesn't hear. Apollo then hits him on the shoulders, shrouded in a cloud. Patroclus loses his strength, drops his spear, helmet and shield, and Hector deals him a crushing blow. Dying, the warrior predicts that he will fall at the hands of Achilles.

The latter learns the sad news: Patroclus has died, and now Hector flaunts in his armor. Friends have difficulty carrying the dead body from the battlefield. The Trojans, triumphant, pursue them. Achilles longs to rush into battle, but cannot do so: he is unarmed. Then the hero screams, and this scream is so terrible that, shuddering, the Trojans retreat. Night begins, and Achilles mourns his friend, threatening his enemies with vengeance.

New Achilles armor

At the request of his mother, Thetis, meanwhile Hephaestus, the blacksmith god, forges new armor for Achilles in a copper forge. These are greaves, a helmet, a shell and a shield, on which the whole world is depicted: the stars and the sun, the sea and the earth, a warring and a peaceful city. In a peaceful situation there is a wedding and a trial, in a warring situation there is a battle and an ambush. Around there is a vineyard, pasture, harvest, plowing, a village festival and a round dance, in the middle of which is a singer with a lyre.

Then morning comes, and our hero puts on his new armor and calls the Greek army to a meeting. His anger has not faded away, but now it is directed at those who killed his friend, and not at Agamemnon. Achilles is angry with Hector and the Trojans. The hero now offers reconciliation to Agamemnon, and he accepts it. Briseis was returned to Achilles. Rich gifts were brought into his tent. But our hero hardly looks at them: he longs for a fight, for revenge.

New battle

Now the fourth battle is coming. Zeus lifts the bans: let the gods themselves fight for whom these mythical heroes of Homer’s “Iliad” want. Athena clashes with Ares in battle, Hera with Artemis.

Achilles is terrible, as noted in Homer's Iliad. The story about this hero continues. He grappled with Aeneas, but the gods tore the latter out of his hands. It is not the fate of this warrior to fall from Achilles. He must survive both him and Troy. Achilles, enraged by the failure, kills countless Trojans, their corpses litter the river. But Scamander, the river god, attacks, engulfing him in waves. Hephaestus, the fire god, pacifies him.

Achilles pursues Hector

Our summary continues. Homer (The Iliad) describes the following further events. The Trojans who managed to survive flee to the city. Hector alone covers the retreat. Achilles runs into him, and he runs: he fears for his life, but at the same time wants to distract Achilles from the others. They run around the city three times, and the gods look at them from above. Zeus hesitates whether to save this hero, but Athena asks to leave everything to the will of fate.

Death of Hector

Zeus then raises the scales, on which are two lots - Achilles and Hectors. Achilles' cup flies up, and Hector's goes towards the underworld. The supreme god gives a sign: to leave Hector to Apollo, and to Athena to intercede for Achilles. The latter holds the hero’s opponent, and he comes face to face with Achilles. Hector's spear hits Hephaestus's shield, but in vain. Achilles wounds the hero in the throat, and he falls. The winner ties his body to his chariot and, mocking the murdered man, drives the horses around Troy. Old Priam cries for him on the city wall. The widow Andromache, as well as all the inhabitants of Troy, also lament.

Burial of Patroclus

The summary we compiled continues. Homer (The Iliad) describes the following events. Patroclus is avenged. Achilles arranges a magnificent burial for his friend. 12 Trojan prisoners are killed over the body of Patroclus. His friend's anger, however, does not subside. Achilles drives his chariot with Hector's body three times a day around the mound where Patroclus is buried. The corpse would have crashed on the rocks long ago, but Apollo invisibly protects it. Zeus intervenes. He announces to Achilles through Thetis that he does not have long to live in the world, asks him to give the body of his enemy for burial. And Achilles obeys.

The act of King Priam

Homer continues to talk about further events (The Iliad). Summary their next. King Priam comes to the winner's tent at night. And with him - a cart full of gifts. The gods themselves allowed him to pass through the Greek camp unnoticed. Priam falls to the warrior’s knees and asks him to remember his father Peleus, who is also old. Grief brings these enemies closer together: only now does the long anger in Achilles’ heart subside. He accepts Priam's gifts, gives him Hector's body and promises that he will not disturb the Trojans until they bury the body of their warrior. Priam returns to Troy with the body, and relatives cry over the murdered man. A fire is lit, the hero's remains are collected in an urn, which is lowered into the grave. A mound is built over it. Homer's poem "The Iliad" ends with a funeral feast.

Further events

There were still many events left before the end of this war. Having lost Hector, the Trojans no longer dared to leave the city walls. But other peoples came to their aid: from the land of the Amazons, from Asia Minor, from Ethiopia. The most terrible was the Ethiopian leader Memnon. He fought with Achilles, who overthrew him and rushed to attack Troy. It was then that the hero died from the arrow of Paris directed by Apollo. Having lost Achilles, the Greeks no longer hoped to take Troy by force - they did it by cunning, forcing the city residents to bring in a wooden horse with knights sitting inside. In the Aeneid Virgil will later talk about this.

Troy was destroyed, and the Greek heroes who managed to survive set off on their way back.

Homer, "Iliad" and "Odyssey": compositions of works

Let us consider the composition of works dedicated to these events. Homer wrote two poems telling about the Trojan War - the Iliad and the Odyssey. They were based on legends about it, which actually happened around the 13-12 centuries BC. “The Iliad” tells about the events of the war in its 10th year, and the fabulous everyday poem “Odyssey” tells about the return of the king of Ithaca, Odysseus, one of the Greek military leaders, to his homeland after its end, and about his misadventures.

In the Iliad, stories about human actions alternate with the depiction of gods who decide the fate of battles, divided into two parties. Events that occurred simultaneously are presented as occurring sequentially. The composition of the poem is symmetrical.

In the structure of the Odyssey, we note the most significant one - the technique of transposition - the depiction of past events in the form of Odysseus's story about them.

This is the compositional structure of Homer's poems "Iliad" and "Odyssey".

Humanism of poems

One of the main reasons for the immortality of these works is their humanism. Homer's poems "Iliad" and "Odyssey" touch on important issues that are relevant at any time. The author glorified courage, loyalty in friendship, love of homeland, wisdom, respect for old age, etc. Considering Homer’s epic “Iliad”, it can be noted that main character terrible in anger, proud. Personal resentment forced him to refuse to participate in the battle and neglect his duty. Nevertheless, it contains moral qualities: the hero’s anger is resolved by generosity.

Odysseus is shown as a courageous, cunning man who can find a way out of any situation. He is fair. Returning to his homeland, the hero carefully observes the behavior of people in order to give everyone what they deserve. He is trying to remove from the crowd of those doomed to death the only suitor of all, Penelope, who greets the owner when he appears in the guise of a beggar tramp. But, unfortunately, he fails to do this: Amphinoma is destroyed by chance. Homer uses this example to show how a hero worthy of respect should act.

The general life-affirming mood of the works is sometimes overshadowed by thoughts about the brevity of life. Homer's heroes, thinking that death is inevitable, strive to leave a glorious memory of themselves.