Livonian War (briefly)

Livonian War - brief description

After the conquest of the rebellious Kazan, Russia sent forces to take Livonia. Researchers identify two main reasons for the Livonian War: the need for trade by the Russian state in the Baltic, as well as the expansion of its possessions. The struggle for dominance over the Baltic waters was between Russia and Denmark, Sweden, as well as Poland and Lithuania.

The reason for the outbreak of hostilities (Livonian War)

The main reason for the outbreak of hostilities was the fact that the Livonian Order did not pay the tribute that it was supposed to pay under the peace treaty of fifty-four. The Russian army invaded Livonia in 1558. At first (1558-1561), several castles and cities were taken (Yuryev, Narva, Dorpat).

However, instead of continuing the successful offensive, the Moscow government grants a truce to the order, while at the same time equipping a military expedition against Crimea. The Livonian knights, taking advantage of the support, gathered forces and defeated the Moscow troops a month before the end of the truce.

Russia did not achieve a positive result from military actions against Crimea. The favorable moment for victory in Livonia was also missed. Master Ketler in 1561 signed an agreement according to which the order came under the protectorate of Poland and Lithuania.

After making peace with the Crimean Khanate, Moscow concentrated its forces on Livonia, but now, instead of a weak order, it had to face several powerful contenders at once. And if at first it was possible to avoid a war with Denmark and Sweden, then a war with the Polish-Lithuanian king was inevitable.

The greatest achievement of the Russian troops in the second stage of the Livonian War was the capture of Polotsk in 1563, after which there were many fruitless negotiations and unsuccessful battles, as a result of which even the Crimean Khan decided to abandon the alliance with the Moscow government.

The final stage of the Livonian War

The final stage of the Livonian War (1679-1683)- the military invasion of the Polish king Batory into Russia, which was simultaneously at war with Sweden. In August, Stefan Batory took Polotsk, and a year later Velikiye Luki and small towns were taken. On September 9, 1581, Sweden took Narva, Koporye, Yam, Ivangorod, after which the struggle for Livonia ceased to be relevant for Grozny. Since it was impossible to wage war with two enemies, the king concluded a truce with Batory.

The result of this war it was a complete conclusion two treaties that were not beneficial for Russia, as well as the loss of many cities.

Main events and chronology of the Livonian War

The Livonian War (1558-1583) for the right to own the territories and possessions of Livonia (a historical region on the territory of the modern Latvian and Estonian republics) began as a war between Russia and the Livonian Order of Knights, which later turned into a war between Russia, Sweden and.

The prerequisite for the war was Russian-Livonian negotiations, which ended in 1554 with the signing of a peace treaty for a period of 15 years. According to this treaty, Livonia was obliged to pay an annual tribute to the Russian Tsar for the city of Dorpat (modern Tartu, originally known as Yuryev), since it previously belonged to the Russian princes, the heirs of Ivan IV. Under the pretext of paying the Yuriev tribute later than the deadline, the tsar declared war on Livonia in January 1558.

Causes of the Livonian War

As for the true reasons for the declaration of war on Livonia by Ivan IV, two possible versions are expressed. The first version was proposed in the 50s of the 19th century by Russian historian Sergei Solovyov, who presented Ivan the Terrible as the predecessor of Peter the Great in his intentions to seize the Baltic port, thereby establishing unimpeded economic (trade) relations with European countries. Until 1991, this version remained the main one in Russian and Soviet historiography, and some Swedish and Danish scientists also agreed with it.

However, since the 60s of the 20th century, the assumption that Ivan IV was motivated solely by economic (trade) interests in the Livonian War has been severely criticized. Critics pointed out that when justifying military actions in Livonia, the tsar never referred to the need for unimpeded trade relations with Europe. Instead, he spoke of heritage rights, calling Livonia his fiefdom. An alternative explanation, proposed by the German historian Norbert Angermann (1972) and supported by the scholar Erik Tiberg (1984) and some Russian scholars in the 1990s, notably Filyushkin (2001), emphasizes the Tsar's desire to expand his spheres of influence and consolidate his power.

Most likely, Ivan IV started the war without any strategic plans. He simply wanted to punish the Livonians and force them to pay tribute and fulfill all the terms of the peace treaty. The initial success encouraged the Tsar that it would be possible to conquer the entire territory of Livonia, but here his interests collided with those of Sweden and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, turning a local conflict into a long and grueling war between the greatest powers of the Baltic region.

Main periods of the Livonian War

As hostilities developed, Ivan IV changed allies, and the picture of military operations also changed. Thus, four main periods can be distinguished in the Livonian War.

1. From 1558 to 1561 - the period of the initial successful operations Russians in Livonia;
2. 1560s - a period of confrontation with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and peaceful relations with Sweden;
3. From 1570 to 1577 - the last attempts of Ivan IV to conquer Livonia;
4. From 1578 to 1582 - attacks by Sweden and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, forcing Ivan IV to liberate the Livonian lands he had seized and move on to peace negotiations.

The first victories of the Russian army

In 1558, the Russian army, without encountering serious resistance from the Livonian army, took an important port located on the Narva River on May 11th, and then conquered the city of Dorpat on July 19th. After a long truce, which lasted from March to November 1559, in 1560 the Russian army made another attempt to attack Livonia. On August 2, the main army of the Order was defeated near Ermes (modern Ergeme), and on August 30, the Russian army led by Prince Andrei Kurbsky took Fellin Castle (modern Viljandi Castle).

When the fall of the weakened Livonian Order became obvious, knightly society and Livonian cities began to seek support from the Baltic countries - the Principality of Lithuania, Denmark and Sweden. In 1561, the country was divided: the last Landmaster of the Order, Gotthard Ketler, became a subject of Sigismund II Augustus, the Polish king and Grand Duke of Lithuania, and proclaimed the sovereignty of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania over the destroyed Order. At the same time, the northern part of Livonia, including the city of Reval (modern Tallinn), was occupied by Swedish troops. Sigismund II was the main rival of Ivan IV in the Livonian War, therefore, trying to unite with King Eric XIV of Sweden, the Tsar declared war on the Principality of Lithuania in 1562. A huge Russian army, led by the Tsar himself, began the siege of Polotsk, a city on the eastern border of the Principality of Lithuania, and captured it on February 15, 1563. In the next few years, the Lithuanian army was able to take revenge, winning two battles in 1564 and capturing two minor fortresses in 1568, but it failed to achieve decisive successes in the war.

Turning point: victories give way to defeat

By the early 70s of the 16th century, the international situation had changed again: coup d'etat in Sweden (Eric XIV was deposed by his brother John III) put an end to the Russian-Swedish alliance; Poland and Lithuania, which united in 1569 to form the state of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, on the contrary, adhered to a peaceful policy due to the illness of King Sigismund II Augustus, who died in 1579, and the periods of interregnum (1572-1573, 1574-1575).

Due to these circumstances, Ivan IV tried to oust the Swedish army from the territory of northern Livonia: the Russian army and the tsar’s subject, the Danish prince Magnus (brother of Frederick II, king of Denmark), carried out a siege of the city of Rewal for 30 weeks (from August 21, 1570 to March 16, 1571), but in vain.

The alliance with the Danish king showed its complete failure, and the raids of the Crimean Tatars, such as, for example, the burning of Moscow by Khan Davlet I Giray on May 24, 1571, forced the king to postpone military operations in Livonia for several years.

In 1577, Ivan IV made his last attempt to conquer Livonia. Russian troops occupied the entire territory of the country with the exception of the cities of Reval and Riga. The following year the war reached its final stage, fatal for Rus' in the Livonian War.

Defeat of Russian troops

In 1578, Russian troops were defeated by the joint efforts of the armies of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Sweden near the Wenden fortress (modern Cesis fortress), after which the royal subject, Prince Magnus, joined the Polish army. In 1579, the Polish king Stefan Batory, a talented general, besieged Polotsk again; the following year he invaded Rus' and ravaged the Pskov region, capturing the fortresses of Velizh and Usvyat and subjecting Velikiye Luki to destructive fire. During the third campaign against Rus' in August 1581, Batory began the siege of Pskov; The garrison under the leadership of the Russian prince Ivan Shuisky repelled 31 attacks.

At the same time, Swedish troops captured Narva. On January 15, 1582, Ivan IV signed the Treaty of Yam-Zapolsky near the town of Zapolsky Yam, which ended the war with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Ivan IV renounced the territories in Livonia, Polotsk and Velizh (Velikiye Luki were returned to the Russian kingdom). In 1583, a peace treaty was signed with Sweden, according to which the Russian cities of Yam, Ivangorod and Koporye were transferred to the Swedes.

Results of the Livonian War

The defeat in the Livonian War was devastating for foreign policy Ivan IV, it weakened the position of Rus' in front of its western and northern neighbors, the war had a detrimental effect on the northwestern regions of the country.

Federal Agency for Education

State educational institution

higher professional education

RUSSIAN STATE HUMANITIES UNIVERSITY

Institute of Economics, Management and Law

FACULTY OF ECONOMICS

Bubble Kristina Radievna

“The Livonian War, its political meaning and consequences”

Abstract on the history of Russia

1st year student of distance learning.

2009-Moscow.

INTRODUCTION -2-

1. Prerequisites for the Livonian War -3-

2. Progress of the war -4-

2.1. War with the Livonian Confederation -5-

2.2. Truce of 1559 -8-

2.3. War with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania -10-

2.4. Third period of the war -11-

2.5. The fourth period of the war -12-

3. Results and consequences of the Livonian War -12-

CONCLUSION -14-
REFERENCES -15-

INTRODUCTION

The history of the Livonian War, despite the knowledge of the goals of the conflict, the nature of the actions of the warring parties, and the results of the military clash, remains among the key problems Russian history. Evidence of this is the kaleidoscope of opinions of researchers who tried to determine the significance of this war among other major foreign policy actions of the Moscow state in the second half of the 16th century.

At the beginning of the 16th century, the formation of a strong centralized state, Muscovite Rus', was completed on Russian lands, which sought to expand its territory at the expense of lands that belonged to other peoples. To successfully implement its political aspirations and economic goals, this state needed to establish close ties with Western Europe, which could only be achieved after gaining free access to the Baltic Sea.

By the middle of the 16th century. Russia owned a small section of coastline on the Baltic Sea from Ivangorod to the area around the mouth of the Neva, where there were no good harbors. This slowed down the development of the Russian economy. To participate in the profitable maritime trade and intensify political and cultural ties with Western Europe, the country needed to expand its access to the Baltic, gaining such convenient ports as Revel (Tallinn) and Riga. The Livonian Order prevented Russian transit trade through the Eastern Baltic, trying to create an economic blockade of Muscovy. But united Russia became much more powerful than the Livonian Order and finally decided to conquer these lands by force of arms.

The main goal of the Livonian War, which was waged by Tsar Ivan IV the Terrible with the Livonian Confederation of States (Livonian Order, Riga Archbishopric, Dorpat, Ezel-Vik and Courland bishoprics) was to gain access to the Baltic Sea.

The purpose of this work is to study the political meaning of the Livonian War and its consequences.

1. Background of the Livonian War

Reforms of the state apparatus, which strengthened the Russian armed forces, and the successful resolution of the Kazan issue allowed the Russian state to begin the struggle for access to the Baltic Sea. The Russian nobility sought to acquire new lands in the Baltic states, and the merchants hoped to gain free access to European markets.

The Livonian feudal lords, as well as the rulers of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Sweden, pursued a policy of economic blockade of Russia.

The Livonian Confederation was interested in controlling the transit of Russian trade and significantly limited the opportunities of Russian merchants. In particular, all trade exchanges with Europe could only be carried out through the Livonian ports of Riga, Lindanise (Revel), Narva, and goods could only be transported on ships of the Hanseatic League. At the same time, fearing the military and economic strengthening of Russia, the Livonian Confederation prevented the transport of strategic raw materials and specialists to Russia (see the Schlitte Affair), receiving the assistance of the Hanseatic League, Poland, Sweden and the German imperial authorities.

In 1503, Ivan III concluded a truce with the Livonian Confederation for 50 years, under the terms of which it had to annually pay tribute (the so-called “Yuriev tribute”) for the city of Yuryev (Dorpt), which previously belonged to Novgorod. Treaties between Moscow and Dorpat in the 16th century. Traditionally, the “Yuriev tribute” was mentioned, but in fact it was long forgotten. When the truce expired, during negotiations in 1554, Ivan IV demanded the return of arrears, the renunciation of the Livonian Confederation from military alliances with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Sweden, and the continuation of the truce.

The first payment of the debt for Dorpat was supposed to take place in 1557, but the Livonian Confederation did not fulfill its obligation.

In the spring of 1557, Tsar Ivan IV established a port on the banks of Narva ( “The same year, July, a city was built from the German Ust-Narova River Rozsene by the sea as a shelter for sea ships.”). However, Livonia and the Hanseatic League do not allow European merchants to enter the new Russian port, and they are forced to go, as before, to Livonian ports.

The Estonian and Latvian peoples have been connected with the Russian people since the times of the ancient Russian state. This connection was interrupted as a result of the conquest of the Baltic states by the German crusaders and the creation of the Livonian Order there.

While fighting the German feudal lords, the working masses of Estonia and Latvia saw their ally in the Russian people, and the annexation of the Baltic states to Russia as an opportunity for their further economic and cultural development.

By the middle of the 16th century. The Baltic issue began to occupy a prominent place in the international relations of European powers. Along with Russia, Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania showed particular interest in access to the Baltic Sea, in whose economies trade with Western European countries was of significant importance. Sweden and Denmark took an active part in the struggle for the Baltic states, striving to strengthen their economic and political positions in the area. During this struggle, Denmark usually acted as an ally of Ivan IV, and Denmark's enemy was Sweden in 1554-1557. waged an inconclusive three-year war with Russia. Finally, England and Spain, which competed with each other, were also interested in Eastern European sales markets. Thanks to friendly diplomatic and trade relations with Russia, England already from the late 50s of the 16th century. greatly displaced the Hanseatic traders of Flemish cloth in the Baltic markets.

Thus, the Livonian War began in difficult international conditions, when its progress was closely monitored or the largest European powers took part in it.

1. Progress of the war

By the beginning of the war, the Livonian Confederation had been weakened by a series of military defeats and the Reformation. On the other hand, Russia was gaining strength after the victories over the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates and the annexation of Kabarda.

1. War with the Livonian Confederation

The invasion of Russian troops in January-February 1558 into the Livonian lands was a reconnaissance raid. 40 thousand people took part in it under the command of Khan Shig-Aley (Shah-Ali), governor Glinsky and Zakharyin-Yuryev. They walked through the eastern part of Estonia and returned back by the beginning of March. The Russian side motivated this campaign solely by the desire to receive due tribute from Livonia. The Livonian Landtag decided to collect 60 thousand thalers for settlements with Moscow in order to end the war that had begun. However, by May only half of the declared amount had been collected. In addition, the Narva garrison fired at the Ivangorod border outpost, thereby violating the armistice agreement.

This time a more powerful army moved to Livonia. The Livonian Confederation at that time could put no more than 10 thousand in the field, not counting the fortress garrisons. Thus, its main military asset was the powerful stone walls of the fortresses, which by this time could no longer effectively withstand the power of heavy siege weapons.

Voivodes Alexey Basmanov and Danila Adashev arrived in Ivangorod. In April 1558, Russian troops besieged Narva. The fortress was defended by a garrison under the command of the knight Vocht Schnellenberg. On May 11, a fire broke out in the city, accompanied by a storm (according to the Nikon Chronicle, the fire occurred due to the fact that drunken Livonians threw an Orthodox icon of the Mother of God into the fire). Taking advantage of the fact that the guards had left the city walls, the Russians rushed to storm. They broke through the gates and took possession of the lower city. Having captured the guns located there, the warriors turned them around and opened fire on the upper castle, preparing the stairs for the attack. However, by the evening the defenders of the castle themselves surrendered, on the condition of free exit from the city.

The defense of the Neuhausen fortress was particularly tenacious. It was defended by several hundred warriors led by the knight von Padenorm, who repelled the onslaught of the governor Peter Shuisky for almost a month. On June 30, 1558, after the destruction of the fortress walls and towers by Russian artillery, the Germans retreated to the upper castle. Von Padenorm expressed a desire to hold the defense here too, but the surviving defenders of the fortress refused to continue their pointless resistance. As a sign of respect for their courage, Pyotr Shuisky allowed them to leave the fortress with honor.

In July, P. Shuisky besieged Dorpat. The city was defended by a garrison of 2,000 men under the command of Bishop Weyland. Having built a rampart at the level of the fortress walls and installed guns on it, on July 11, Russian artillery began shelling the city. The cannonballs pierced the tiles of the roofs of houses, drowning the residents taking refuge there. On July 15, P. Shuisky invited Weiland to surrender. While he was thinking, the bombing continued. Some towers and loopholes were destroyed. Having lost hope of outside help, the besieged decided to enter into negotiations with the Russians. P. Shuisky promised not to destroy the city to the ground and to preserve the previous administration for its residents. On July 18, 1558 Dorpat capitulated. The troops settled in houses abandoned by residents. In one of them, warriors found 80 thousand thalers in a cache. The Livonian historian bitterly tells that the people of Dorpat, because of their greed, lost more than the Russian Tsar demanded from them. The funds found would be enough not only for the Yuryev tribute, but also for hiring troops to defend the Livonian Confederation.

During May-October 1558, Russian troops took 20 fortified cities, including those that voluntarily surrendered and entered into the citizenship of the Russian Tsar, after which they went into winter quarters within their borders, leaving small garrisons in the cities. The new energetic master Gotthard Ketler took advantage of this. Having collected 10 thousand. army, he decided to return what was lost. At the end of 1558, Ketler approached the Ringen fortress, which was defended by a garrison of several hundred archers under the command of the governor Rusin-Ignatiev. A detachment of governor Repnin (2 thousand people) went to help the besieged, but he was defeated by Ketler. However, the Russian garrison continued to defend the fortress for five weeks, and only when the defenders ran out of gunpowder were the Germans able to storm the fortress. The entire garrison was killed. Having lost a fifth of his army (2 thousand people) near Ringen and having spent more than a month besieging one fortress, Ketler was unable to build on his success. At the end of October 1558, his army retreated to Riga. This small victory turned into a big disaster for the Livonians.

In response to the actions of the Livonian Confederation, two months after the fall of the Ringen fortress, Russian troops carried out a winter raid, which was a punitive operation. In January 1559, Prince-voivode Serebryany at the head of his army entered Livonia. The Livonian army under the command of the knight Felkensam came out to meet him. On January 17, at the Battle of Terzen, the Germans suffered a complete defeat. Felkensam and 400 knights (not counting ordinary warriors) died in this battle, the rest were captured or fled. This victory opened the gates to Livonia wide for the Russians. They passed unhindered through the lands of the Livonian Confederation, captured 11 cities and reached Riga, where they burned the Riga fleet at the Dunamun raid. Then Courland passed along the path of the Russian army and, having passed through it, they reached the Prussian border. In February, the army returned home with huge booty and a large number of prisoners.

After the winter raid of 1559, Ivan IV granted the Livonian Confederation a truce (the third in a row) from March to November, without consolidating his success. This miscalculation was due to a number of reasons. Moscow was under serious pressure from Lithuania, Poland, Sweden and Denmark, who had their own plans for the Livonian lands. Since March 1559, Lithuanian ambassadors urgently demanded that Ivan IV stop hostilities in Livonia, threatening, otherwise, to take the side of the Livonian Confederation. Soon the Swedish and Danish ambassadors made requests to end the war.

With its invasion of Livonia, Russia also affected the trade interests of a number of European states. Trade on the Baltic Sea was then growing from year to year and the question of who would control it was relevant. Revel merchants, having lost the most important source of their profits - income from Russian transit, complained to the Swedish king: “ We stand on the walls and watch with tears as merchant ships sail past our city to the Russians in Narva».

In addition, the Russian presence in Livonia affected complex and confusing pan-European politics, upsetting the balance of power on the continent. So, for example, the Polish king Sigismund II Augustus wrote to the English Queen Elizabeth I about the importance of the Russians in Livonia: “ The Moscow sovereign daily increases his power by acquiring goods that are brought to Narva, because, among other things, weapons are brought here that are still unknown to him... military specialists arrive, through whom he acquires the means to defeat everyone...».

The truce was also due to disagreements over foreign strategy within the Russian leadership itself. There, in addition to supporters of access to the Baltic Sea, there were those who advocated continuing the struggle in the south, against the Crimean Khanate. In fact, the main initiator of the truce of 1559 was the okolnichy Alexei Adashev. This group reflected the sentiments of those circles of the nobility who, in addition to eliminating the threat from the steppes, wanted to receive a large additional land fund in steppe zone. During this truce, the Russians attacked the Crimean Khanate, which, however, did not have significant consequences. The truce with Livonia had more global consequences.

The region was annexed to Russia and immediately received special benefits. The cities of Dorpat and Narva were given: complete amnesty for residents, free practice of their faith, city self-government, judicial autonomy and duty-free trade with Russia. Narva, destroyed after the assault, began to be restored and even provided loans to local landowners at the expense of the royal treasury. All this seemed so tempting to the rest of the Livonians, who had not yet been conquered by the “hellish Tatars”, that by the fall 20 more cities voluntarily came under the rule of the “bloody despot”.

1. Truce of 1559

Already in the first year of the war, in addition to Narva, Yuryev (July 18), Neishloss, Neuhaus were occupied, the troops of the Livonian Confederation were defeated at Thiersen near Riga, Russian troops reached Kolyvan. The raids of the Crimean Tatar hordes on the southern borders of Rus', which occurred already in January 1558, could not fetter the initiative of Russian troops in the Baltic states.

However, in March 1559, under the influence of Denmark and representatives of the large boyars, who prevented the expansion of the scope of the military conflict, a truce was concluded with the Livonian Confederation, which lasted until November. Historian R. G. Skrynnikov emphasizes that the Russian government, represented by Adashev and Viskovaty, “had to conclude a truce on the western borders,” as it was preparing for a “decisive clash on the southern border.”

During the truce (August 31), the Livonian Landmaster of the Teutonic Order, Gothard Ketler, concluded an agreement in Vilna with the Lithuanian Grand Duke Sigismund II, according to which the lands of the order and the possessions of the Riga Archbishop passed under “clientella and protection,” that is, under the protectorate of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In the same 1559, Revel went to Sweden, and the Bishop of Ezel ceded the island of Ezel (Saaremaa) to Duke Magnus, brother of the Danish king, for 30 thousand thalers.

Taking advantage of the delay, the Livonian Confederation gathered reinforcements, and a month before the end of the truce in the vicinity of Yuriev, its troops attacked Russian troops. Russian governors lost more than 1000 people killed.

In 1560, the Russians resumed hostilities and won a number of victories: Marienburg (now Aluksne in Latvia) was taken; German forces were defeated at Ermes, after which Fellin (now Viljandi in Estonia) was taken. The Livonian Confederation collapsed.

During the capture of Fellin, the former Livonian landmaster of the Teutonic Order, Wilhelm von Furstenberg, was captured. In 1575, he sent his brother a letter from Yaroslavl, where the former landmaster had been granted land. He told a relative that he “has no reason to complain about his fate.”

Sweden and Lithuania, who acquired the Livonian lands, demanded that Moscow remove troops from their territory. Ivan the Terrible refused and Russia found itself in conflict with the coalition of Lithuania and Sweden.

1. War with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania

On November 26, 1561, the German Emperor Ferdinand I banned supplies to the Russians through the port of Narva. Eric XIV, King of Sweden, blocked the port of Narva and sent Swedish privateers to intercept merchant ships sailing to Narva.

In 1562, there was a raid by Lithuanian troops on the Smolensk and Velizh regions. In the summer of the same year, the situation on the southern borders of the Moscow state worsened, which moved the timing of the Russian offensive in Livonia to the fall.

The path to the Lithuanian capital Vilna was closed by Polotsk. In January 1563, the Russian army, which included “almost all the armed forces of the country,” set out to capture this border fortress from Velikie Luki. At the beginning of February, the Russian army began the siege of Polotsk, and on February 15 the city surrendered.

Mercy towards the vanquished was typical for the army of Grozny: when Polotsk was recaptured from the Poles in 1563, Ivan released the garrison in peace, giving each Pole a sable fur coat, and preserving the city's legal proceedings according to local laws.

Nevertheless, Ivan the Terrible was cruel towards Jews. As the Pskov Chronicle reports, during the capture of Polotsk, Ivan the Terrible ordered all Jews to be baptized on the spot, and ordered those who refused (300 people) to be drowned in the Dvina. Karamzin mentions that after the capture of Polotsk, John ordered “all Jews to be baptized, and the disobedient to be drowned in Dvina.”

After the capture of Polotsk, there was a decline in Russia's successes in the Livonian War. Already in 1564, the Russians suffered a series of defeats (Battle of Chashniki). A boyar and a major military leader, who actually commanded the Russian troops in the West, Prince A. M. Kurbsky, went over to the side of Lithuania; he betrayed the king’s agents in the Baltic states to the king and participated in the Lithuanian raid on Velikiye Luki.

Tsar Ivan the Terrible responded to military failures and the reluctance of eminent boyars to fight against Lithuania with repressions against the boyars. In 1565 the oprichnina was introduced. In 1566, a Lithuanian embassy arrived in Moscow, proposing to divide Livonia on the basis of the situation that existed at that time. The Zemsky Sobor, convened at this time, supported the intention of the government of Ivan the Terrible to fight in the Baltic states until the capture of Riga.

1. Third period of the war

The Union of Lublin, which in 1569 united the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into one state - the Republic of Both Nations, had serious consequences. A difficult situation has developed in the north of Russia, where relations with Sweden have again become strained, and in the south (the campaign of the Turkish army near Astrakhan in 1569 and the war with Crimea, during which the army of Devlet I Giray burned Moscow in 1571 and devastated the southern Russian lands). However, the onset of a long-term “kinglessness” in the Republic of Both Nations, the creation in Livonia of the vassal “kingdom” of Magnus, which at first had an attractive force in the eyes of the population of Livonia, again made it possible to tip the scales in favor of Russia. In 1572, the army of Devlet-Girey was destroyed and the threat of large raids by the Crimean Tatars was eliminated (Battle of Molodi). In 1573, the Russians stormed the Weissenstein (Paide) fortress. In the spring, Moscow troops under the command of Prince Mstislavsky (16,000) converged near Lode Castle in western Estland with a Swedish army of two thousand. Despite the overwhelming numerical advantage, the Russian troops suffered a crushing defeat. They had to leave all their guns, banners and convoys.

In 1575, the Saga fortress surrendered to the army of Magnus, and Pernov to the Russians. After the campaign of 1576, Russia captured the entire coast except Riga and Kolyvan.

However, the unfavorable international situation, the distribution of land in the Baltic states to Russian nobles, which alienated the local peasant population from Russia, and serious internal difficulties negatively affected the further course of the war for Russia.

1. Fourth period of the war

Stefan Batory, who ascended the Polish throne with the active support of the Turks (1576), went on the offensive and occupied Wenden (1578), Polotsk (1579), Sokol, Velizh, Usvyat, and Velikiye Luki. In the captured fortresses, the Poles and Lithuanians completely destroyed the Russian garrisons. In Velikiye Luki, the Poles exterminated the entire population, about 7 thousand people. Polish and Lithuanian troops ravaged the Smolensk region, the Seversk land, the Ryazan region, the southwest of the Novgorod region, and plundered Russian lands right up to the upper reaches of the Volga. The devastation they caused was reminiscent of the worst Tatar raids. The Lithuanian governor Philon Kmita from Orsha burned 2,000 villages in the western Russian lands and captured a huge town. In February 1581, the Lithuanians burned Staraya Russa.

In 1581, the Polish-Lithuanian army, which included mercenaries from almost all of Europe, besieged Pskov, intending, if successful, to march on Novgorod the Great and Moscow. In November 1580, the Swedes took Korela, where 2 thousand Russians were exterminated, and in 1581 they occupied Narva, which was also accompanied by massacres - 7 thousand Russians died; the victors did not take prisoners and did not spare civilians.

The heroic defense of Pskov in 1581-1582 determined a more favorable outcome of the war for Russia: it forced the Polish king to abandon his further plans and conclude a truce with the Russian government in Zapolsky Yam in 1582 for 10 years. Under the terms of this truce, the old state border was preserved. For the Russian state, this meant the loss of Livonia. The following year, 1583, a truce was concluded on the Plussa River with the Swedes, who retained the Russian cities of Koporye, Yam, Ivangorod and the entire coast of the Gulf of Finland, except for a small outlet to the Baltic Sea near the mouth of the Neva.

1. Results and consequences of the Livonian War

In January 1582, in Yam-Zapolsky (near Pskov) a 10-year truce was concluded with the Republic of Both Nations (the so-called Yam-Zapolsky Peace). Russia renounced Livonia and Belarusian lands, but some border lands were returned to it.

In May 1583, the 3-year Truce of Plyus with Sweden was concluded, according to which Koporye, Yam, Ivangorod and the adjacent territory of the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland were ceded. The Russian state again found itself cut off from the sea. The country was devastated, the northwestern regions were depopulated. The war was lost on all counts. The result of the war and the repressions of Ivan the Terrible was a population decline (decreased by 25%) and the economic ruin of the country. It should also be noted that the course of the war and its results were influenced by the Crimean raids: only 3 years out of 25 years of the war there were no significant raids.

The Livonian War, which lasted a quarter of a century (1558-1583) and cost enormous victims to the Russian state, did not solve the historical problem of Russia's access to the Baltic Sea.

As a result of the Livonian War, Livonia was divided between Poland, which received Vidzeme, Latgale, Southern Estonia, the Duchy of Courland, and Sweden, to which Northern Estonia with Tallinn and Russian territory near the Gulf of Finland went; Denmark received the island of Saaremaa and certain areas in the former Bishopric of Kurzeme. Thus, the Latvian and Estonian peoples remained politically fragmented under the yoke of the new conquerors.

But the Livonian War was not inconclusive for the Russian state. Its significance was that Russian troops defeated and finally destroyed the Livonian Order, which was a cruel enemy of the Russian, Latvian, Estonian and Lithuanian peoples. During the Livonian War, the friendship of the Estonian and Latvian peoples with the Russian people strengthened.

CONCLUSION

In 1558, Moscow troops entered Livonia. The Livonian Order was unable to fight and disintegrated. Estland surrendered to Sweden, Livonia to Poland, the order retained only Courland. By 1561, Russian troops finally defeated the Livonian Order. The first period of the war turned out to be very successful for Russia. Russian troops occupied the cities of Narva, Dorpat, Polotsk, and Revel was besieged.

With its invasion of Livonia, Russia also affected the trade interests of a number of European states. Trade on the Baltic Sea was then growing from year to year and the question of who would control it was relevant.

In addition, the Russian presence in Livonia affected complex and confusing pan-European politics, upsetting the balance of power on the continent.

Military operations were victorious for Moscow until Stefan Batory, who had undoubted military talent, was elected to the Polish-Lithuanian throne.

The following periods of the war were unsuccessful for Russia. Since 1579, it switched to defensive actions. Batory, having become king, immediately launched a decisive offensive against Ivan the Terrible. Under the pressure of united troops, the Russians abandoned Polotsk and the strategically important fortress of Velikiye Luki. In 1581, Batory besieged Pskov, intending to march on Novgorod and Moscow after capturing the city. Russia faced a real threat of losing significant territories. The heroic defense of Pskov (1581-1582), in which the entire population of the city participated, predetermined the outcome of the war that was relatively favorable for Russia.

The results of the Livonian War, which lasted twenty-five years, were very difficult for Russia. Russia suffered territorial losses, hostilities devastated the country, the treasury was emptied, and the central and northwestern districts were depopulated. The main goal of the Livonian War - access to the Baltic Sea coast - was not achieved.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Volkov V.A. Wars and troops of the Moscow state. - M. - 2004.

Danilevsky I.N., Andreev I.L., Kirillov V.V. Russian history. From ancient times to the beginning of the 20th century. – M. - 2007.

Karamzin N. M. History of the Russian State. Volume 8. Volume 9.

Korolyuk V.D. Livonian War. - M. - 1954.

Platonov S. F. Complete course of lectures on Russian history

Solovyov S. M. History of Russia since ancient times, volume 6. - M., 2001

Skrynnikov R. G. Ivan the Terrible. - M. - 2006.

Shirokorad A. B. Northern wars of Russia. - M. - 2001.

In January 1582, a ten-year truce with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was concluded in Yama-Zapolsky (near Pskov). Under this agreement, Russia renounced Livonia and Belarusian lands, but some border Russian lands seized by the Polish king during hostilities were returned to her.

The defeat of the Russian troops in the simultaneous war with Poland, where the tsar was faced with the need to decide even to cede Pskov if the city was taken by storm, forced Ivan IV and his diplomats to negotiate with Sweden on the conclusion of the Treaty of Plus, humiliating for the Russian state. . Negotiations at Plus took place from May to August 1583. Under this agreement:

ü The Russian state lost all its acquisitions in Livonia. Behind it remained only a narrow section of access to the Baltic Sea in the Gulf of Finland from the Strelka River to the Sestra River (31.5 km).

ü The cities of Ivan-gorod, Yam, Koporye passed to the Swedes along with Narva (Rugodiv).

ü In Karelia, the Kexholm (Korela) fortress went to the Swedes, along with a vast county and the coast of Lake Ladoga.

The Russian state again found itself cut off from the sea. The country was devastated, the central and northwestern regions were depopulated. Russia lost a significant part of its territory.

Chapter 3. Domestic historians about the Livonian War

Domestic historiography reflects the problems of society during critical periods in the development of our country, which is accompanied by the formation of a new, modern society, then the views of historians on certain historical events change according to the times. The views of modern historians on the Livonian War are practically unanimous and do not cause much disagreement. The views of Tatishchev, Karamzin, and Pogodin about the Livonian War, which were dominant in the 19th century, are now perceived as archaic. In the works of N.I. Kostomarova, S.M. Solovyova, V.O. Klyuchevsky reveals a new vision of the problem.

Livonian War (1558-1583). Causes. Move. Results

At the beginning of the twentieth century, another change in the social system took place. During this transition period to the domestic historical science Outstanding historians came - representatives of different historical schools: statesman S.F. Platonov, creator of the “proletarian-internationalist” school M.N. Pokrovsky, a very original philosopher R.Yu. Whipper, who explained the events of the Livonian War from their points of view. During the Soviet period, historical schools successively replaced each other: the “Pokrovsky school” in the mid-1930s. The 20th century was replaced by the “patriotic school”, which was replaced by the “new Soviet historical school” (from the late 1950s of the 20th century), among whose adherents we can mention A.A. Zimina, V.B. Kobrina, R.G. Skrynnikova.

N.M. Karamzin (1766-1826) assessed the Livonian War as a whole as “unfortunate, but not inglorious for Russia.” The historian places responsibility for the defeat in the war on the tsar, whom he accuses of “cowardice” and “confusion of spirit.”

According to N.I. Kostomarov (1817-1885) in 1558, before the start of the Livonian War, Ivan IV was faced with an alternative - either “deal with the Crimea” or “take possession of Livonia”. The historian explains Ivan IV’s counterintuitive decision to fight on two fronts by “discord” between his advisers. In his writings, Kostomarov writes that the Livonian War drained the strength and labor of the Russian people. The historian explains the failure of the Russian troops in the confrontation with the Swedes and Poles by the complete demoralization of the Russian armed forces as a result of oprichnina actions. According to Kostomarov, as a result of the peace with Poland and the truce with Sweden, “the western borders of the state shrank, the fruits of long-term efforts were lost.”

The Livonian War, which began in 1559, S.M. Soloviev (1820-1879) explains by Russia’s need to “assimilate the fruits of European civilization,” the bearers of which were allegedly not allowed into Rus' by the Livonians, who owned the main Baltic ports. The loss of seemingly conquered Livonia by Ivan IV was the result of simultaneous actions against the Russian troops of the Poles and Swedes, as well as the result of the superiority of the regular (mercenary) army and European military art over the Russian noble militia.

According to S.F. Platonov (1860-1933), Russia was drawn into the Livonian War. The historian believes that Russia could not evade what was “happening on its western borders,” which “exploited it and oppressed it (with unfavorable terms of trade).” The defeat of Ivan IV's troops last stage The Livonian War is explained by the fact that then there were “signs of a clear depletion of means for the fight.” The historian also notes, mentioning economic crisis, who befell the Russian state, that Stefan Batory “beat an enemy who was already lying down, not defeated by him, but who had lost his strength before fighting him.”

M.N. Pokrovsky (1868-1932) claims that the Livonian War was allegedly started by Ivan IV on the recommendation of some advisers - without any doubt, from the ranks of the “military”. The historian notes both the “very opportune moment” for the invasion and the absence of “almost any formal reason” for it. Pokrovsky explains the intervention of the Swedes and Poles in the war by the fact that they could not allow “the entire south-eastern coast of the Baltic” with trading ports to come under Russian rule. Pokrovsky considers the main defeats of the Livonian War to be the unsuccessful sieges of Revel and the loss of Narva and Ivangorod. He also notes the great influence on the outcome of the war of the Crimean invasion of 1571.

According to R.Yu. Vipper (1859-1954), the Livonian War was prepared long before 1558 by the leaders of the Elected Rada and could have been won if Russia had acted earlier. The historian considers the battles for the Eastern Baltic to be the largest of all wars waged by Russia, as well as “the most important event in European history.” Whipper explains Russia's defeat by the fact that by the end of the war, "Russia's military structure" was in disintegration, and "Grozny's ingenuity, flexibility and adaptability ended."

A.A. Zimin (1920-1980) connects the decision of the Moscow government “to raise the issue of annexing the Baltic states” with “the strengthening of the Russian state in the 16th century.” Among the motives that prompted this decision, he highlights the need to acquire Russia's access to the Baltic Sea to expand cultural and economic ties with Europe. Thus, the Russian merchants were interested in the war; the nobility hoped to acquire new lands. Zimin considers the involvement of “a number of major Western powers” ​​in the Livonian War as the result of “the short-sighted policy of the Chosen Rada.” The historian connects Russia’s defeat in the war with this, as well as with the ruin of the country, with the demoralization of service people, and with the death of skilled military leaders during the oprichnina years.

The beginning of the “War for Livonia” R.G. Skrynnikov associates it with Russia’s “first success” - the victory in the war with the Swedes (1554-1557), under the influence of which “plans for the conquest of Livonia and establishment in the Baltic states” were put forward. The historian points to Russia’s “special goals” in the war, the main one of which was to create conditions for Russian trade. After all, the Livonian Order and German merchants interfered with the commercial activities of the Muscovites, and Ivan IV’s attempts to organize his own “shelter” at the mouth of the Narova failed. The defeat of the Russian troops at the last stage of the Livonian War, according to Skrynnikov, was the result of the entry into the war of the Polish armed forces led by Stefan Batory. The historian notes that in the army of Ivan IV at that time there were not 300 thousand people, as previously stated, but only 35 thousand. In addition, the twenty-year war and the ruin of the country contributed to the weakening of the noble militia. Skrynnikov explains the conclusion of peace by Ivan IV with the renunciation of Livonian possessions in favor of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth by the fact that Ivan IV wanted to focus on the war with the Swedes.

According to V.B. Kobrin (1930-1990) The Livonian War became unpromising for Russia when, some time after the start of the conflict, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland became opponents of Moscow. The historian notes the key role of Adashev, who was one of the leaders of Russian foreign policy, in unleashing the Livonian War. Kobrin considers the conditions of the Russian-Polish truce concluded in 1582 not humiliating, but rather difficult for Russia. He notes in this regard that the goal of the war was not achieved - “the reunification of the Ukrainian and Belarusian lands that were part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the annexation of the Baltic states.” The historian considers the conditions of the truce with Sweden even more difficult, since a significant part of the coast of the Gulf of Finland, which was part of the Novgorod land, was “lost.”

Conclusion

Thus:

1. The purpose of the Livonian War was to give Russia access to the Baltic Sea in order to break the blockade from Livonia, the Polish-Lithuanian state and Sweden and establish direct communication with European countries.

2. The immediate reason for the start of the Livonian War was the issue of the “Yuriev tribute.”

3. The beginning of the war (1558) brought victories to Ivan the Terrible: Narva and Yuryev were taken. The military operations that began in 1560 brought new defeats to the Order: the large fortresses of Marienburg and Fellin were taken, the order army blocking the path to Viljandi was defeated near Ermes, and the Master of the Order Fürstenberg himself was captured. The successes of the Russian army were facilitated by the peasant uprisings that broke out in the country against the German feudal lords. The result of the campaign of 1560 was the virtual defeat of the Livonian Order as a state.

4. From 1561, the Livonian War entered its second period, when Russia was forced to wage war with the Polish-Lithuanian state and Sweden.

5. Since Lithuania and Poland in 1570 could not quickly concentrate forces against the Moscow state, because were exhausted by the war, Ivan IV began in May 1570 to negotiate a truce with Poland and Lithuania and at the same time create, having neutralized Poland, an anti-Swedish coalition, realizing his long-standing idea of ​​​​forming a vassal state from Russia in the Baltic States. The Danish Duke Magnus in May 1570 was proclaimed “King of Livonia” upon his arrival in Moscow.

6. The Russian government pledged to provide the new state, settled on the island of Ezel, with its military assistance and material resources so that it could expand its territory at the expense of the Swedish and Lithuanian-Polish possessions in Livonia.

7. The proclamation of the Livonian Kingdom was supposed, according to the calculations of Ivan IV, to provide Russia with the support of the Livonian feudal lords, i.e. all German knighthood and nobility in Estland, Livonia and Courland, and therefore not only an alliance with Denmark (through Magnus), but also, most importantly, alliance and support for the Habsburg Empire. With this new combination in Russian foreign policy, the Tsar intended to create a vice on two fronts for an overly aggressive and restless Poland, which had grown due to the inclusion of Lithuania. While Sweden and Denmark were at war with each other, Ivan IV led successful actions against Sigismund II Augustus. In 1563, the Russian army took Plock, a fortress that opened the way to the capital of Lithuania, Vilna, and Riga. But already at the beginning of 1564, the Russians suffered a series of defeats on the Ulla River and near Orsha.

8. By 1577, in fact, all of Livonia north of the Western Dvina (Vidzeme) was in the hands of the Russians, except for Riga, which, as a Hanseatic city, Ivan IV decided to spare. However, military successes did not lead to a victorious end to the Livonian War. The fact is that Russia by this time had lost the diplomatic support that it had at the beginning of the Swedish stage of the Livonian War. Firstly, Emperor Maximilian II died in October 1576, and hopes for the capture of Poland and its division did not materialize. Secondly, a new king came to power in Poland - Stefan Batory, the former Prince of Semigrad, one of the best commanders of his time, who was a supporter of an active Polish-Swedish alliance against Russia. Thirdly, Denmark disappeared completely as an ally and, finally, in 1578-1579. Stefan Batory managed to persuade Duke Magnus to betray the king.

9. In 1579, Batory captured Polotsk and Velikie Luki, in 1581 he besieged Pskov, and by the end of 1581 the Swedes captured the entire coast of Northern Estonia, Narva, Wesenberg (Rakovor, Rakvere), Haapsalu, Pärnu and the entire Southern (Russian) ) Estonia - Fellin (Viljandi), Dorpat (Tartu). In Ingria, Ivan-gorod, Yam, Koporye were taken, and in the Ladoga region - Korela.

10. In January 1582, a ten-year truce with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was concluded in Yama-Zapolsky (near Pskov). Under this agreement, Russia renounced Livonia and Belarusian lands, but some border Russian lands seized by the Polish king during hostilities were returned to her.

11. The Treaty of Plus was concluded with Sweden. Under this agreement, the Russian state was deprived of all its acquisitions in Livonia. The cities of Ivan-gorod, Yam, Koporye passed to the Swedes along with Narva (Rugodiv). In Karelia, the Kexholm (Korela) fortress went to the Swedes, along with a vast district and the coast of Lake Ladoga.

12. As a result, the Russian state found itself cut off from the sea. The country was devastated, the central and northwestern regions were depopulated. Russia lost a significant part of its territory.

List of used literature

1. Zimin A.A. History of the USSR from ancient times to the present day. – M., 1966.

2. Karamzin N.M. History of Russian Goverment. - Kaluga, 1993.

3. Klyuchevsky V.O. Russian history course. - M. 1987.

4. Kobrin V.B. Ivan groznyj. - M., 1989.

5. Platonov S.F. Ivan the Terrible (1530-1584). Whipper R.Yu. Ivan the Terrible / Comp. D.M. Kholodikhin. - M., 1998.

6. Skrynnikov R.G. Ivan groznyj. – M., 1980.

7. Soloviev S.M. Essays. History of Russia from ancient times. - M., 1989.

Read in the same book: Introduction | Chapter 1. Creation of Livonia | Military actions of 1561 - 1577 |mybiblioteka.su - 2015-2018. (0.095 sec.)

The best thing that history gives us is the enthusiasm it arouses.

The Livonian War lasted from 1558 to 1583. During the war, Ivan the Terrible sought to gain access to and capture the port cities of the Baltic Sea, which was supposed to significantly improve the economic situation of Rus' by improving trade. In this article we will talk briefly about the Levon War, as well as all its aspects.

Beginning of the Livonian War

The sixteenth century was a period of continuous wars. The Russian state sought to protect itself from its neighbors and return lands that had previously been part of Ancient Rus'.

Wars were fought on several fronts:

• The eastern direction was marked by the conquest of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, as well as the beginning of the development of Siberia.
• The southern direction of foreign policy represented the eternal struggle with the Crimean Khanate.
• The western direction is the events of the long, difficult and very bloody Livonian War (1558–1583), which will be discussed.

Livonia is a region in the eastern Baltic. On the territory of modern Estonia and Latvia. In those days, there was a state created as a result of the crusader conquests. As a state entity, it was weak due to national contradictions (the Baltic people were placed in feudal dependence), religious split (the Reformation penetrated there), and the struggle for power among the elite.

Map of the Livonian War

Reasons for the start of the Livonian War

Ivan IV the Terrible began the Livonian War against the backdrop of the success of his foreign policy in other areas. The Russian prince-tsar sought to push the borders of the state back in order to gain access to shipping areas and ports of the Baltic Sea. And the Livonian Order gave the Russian Tsar ideal reasons for starting the Livonian War:

1. Refusal to pay tribute. In 1503, the Livn Order and Rus' signed a document according to which the former agreed to pay an annual tribute to the city of Yuryev. In 1557, the Order unilaterally withdrew from this obligation.
2. The weakening of the foreign political influence of the Order against the backdrop of national disagreements.

Speaking about the reason, we should focus on the fact that Livonia separated Rus' from the sea and blocked trade. Large merchants and nobles who wanted to appropriate new lands were interested in capturing Livonia. But the main reason can be identified as the ambitions of Ivan IV the Terrible. Victory was supposed to strengthen his influence, so he waged the war, regardless of the circumstances and the meager capabilities of the country for the sake of his own greatness.

Progress of the war and main events

The Livonian War was fought with long interruptions and is historically divided into four stages.

First stage of the war

In the first stage (1558–1561) fighting were relatively successful for Russia. In the first months, the Russian army captured Dorpat, Narva and was close to capturing Riga and Revel. The Livonian Order was on the verge of destruction and asked for a truce. Ivan the Terrible agreed to stop the war for 6 months, but this was a huge mistake. During this time, the Order came under the protectorate of Lithuania and Poland, as a result of which Russia received not one weak, but two strong opponents.

The most dangerous enemy for Russia was Lithuania, which at that time could in some aspects surpass the Russian kingdom in its potential. Moreover, the Baltic peasants were dissatisfied with the newly arrived Russian landowners, the cruelties of war, extortions and other disasters.

Second stage of the war

The second stage of the war (1562–1570) began with the fact that the new owners of the Livonian lands demanded that Ivan the Terrible withdraw his troops and abandon Livonia. In fact, it was proposed that the Livonian War should end, and Russia would be left with nothing as a result. After the tsar’s refusal to do this, the war for Russia finally turned into an adventure. The war with Lithuania lasted 2 years and was unsuccessful for the Russian Kingdom. The conflict could only be continued in conditions of the oprichnina, especially since the boyars were against the continuation of hostilities. Earlier, for dissatisfaction with the Livonian War, in 1560 the tsar dispersed the “Elected Rada”.

It was at this stage of the war that Poland and Lithuania united into a single state - the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. It was a strong power that everyone, without exception, had to reckon with.

Third stage of the war

The third stage (1570–1577) involved local battles between Russia and Sweden for the territory of modern Estonia. They ended without any significant results for both sides. All battles were local in nature and did not have any significant impact on the course of the war.

The fourth stage of the war

At the fourth stage of the Livonian War (1577–1583), Ivan IV again captured the entire Baltic region, but soon the tsar’s luck ran out and the Russian troops were defeated. The new king of the united Poland and Lithuania (Rzeczpospolita), Stefan Batory, expelled Ivan the Terrible from the Baltic region, and even managed to capture a number of cities already on the territory of the Russian kingdom (Polotsk, Velikiye Luki, etc.).

Livonian War 1558-1583

The fighting was accompanied by terrible bloodshed. Since 1579, assistance to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth has been provided by Sweden, which acted very successfully, capturing Ivangorod, Yam, and Koporye.

Russia was saved from complete defeat by the defense of Pskov (from August 1581). During the 5 months of the siege, the garrison and residents of the city repulsed 31 assault attempts, weakening Batory’s army.

The end of the war and its results

The Yam-Zapolsky truce between the Russian kingdom and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1582 put an end to a long and unnecessary war. Russia abandoned Livonia. The coast of the Gulf of Finland was lost. It was captured by Sweden, with which the Treaty of Plus was signed in 1583.

Thus, we can highlight the following reasons for the defeat of the Russian state, which sums up the results of the Liovno War:

• adventurism and ambitions of the tsar - Russia could not wage a war simultaneously with three strong states;
• the harmful influence of the oprichnina, economic ruin, Tatar attacks.
• A deep economic crisis within the country, which erupted during the 3rd and 4th stages of hostilities.

Despite the negative outcome, it was the Livonian War that determined the direction of Russian foreign policy for many years to come - to gain access to the Baltic Sea.

Siege of Pskov by King Stefan Batory in 1581, Karl Pavlovich Bryullov

• Date: January 15, 1582.
• Place: village of Kiverova Gora, 15 versts from Zapolsky Yam.
• Type: peace treaty.
• Military conflict: Livonian War.
• Participants, countries: Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - Russian Kingdom.
• Participants, country representatives: J. Zbarazhsky, A. Radziwill, M. Garaburda and H. Varshevitsky - D. P. Eletsky, R.

  Livonian War

  V. Olferev, N. N. Vereshchagin and Z. Sviyazev.

• Negotiating mediator: Antonio Possevino.

The Yam-Zapolsky Peace Treaty was concluded on January 15, 1582 between the Russian Empire and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. This agreement was concluded for 10 years and became one of the main acts that ended the Livonian War.

Yam-Zapolsky Peace Treaty: conditions, results and significance

Under the terms of the Yam-Zapolsky Peace Treaty, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth returned all conquered Russian cities and territories, namely the Pskov and Novgorod lands. The exception was the region of Velizh, where the border that existed until 1514 (until the annexation of Smolensk to the Russian kingdom) was restored.

The Russian kingdom gave up all its territories in the Baltic states (territory belonging to the Livonian Order). Stefan Batory also demanded large monetary compensation, but Ivan IV refused him. The agreement, at the insistence of the ambassadors of the Russian Empire, did not mention the Livonian cities that were captured by Sweden. And although the ambassadors of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth made a special statement stipulating territorial claims against Sweden, this issue remained open.

In 1582, the treaty was ratified in Moscow. Ivan IV the Terrible intended to use this treaty to build up forces and resume active hostilities with Sweden, which was not implemented in practice. Despite the fact that the Russian Empire did not acquire new territories and did not resolve contradictions with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the threat in the form of the Livonian Order no longer existed.

Introduction 3

1.Causes of the Livonian War 4

2.Stages of war 6

3. Results and consequences of the war 14

Conclusion 15

References 16

Introduction.

The relevance of research. The Livonian War is a significant stage in Russian history. Long and grueling, it brought Russia many losses. It is very important and relevant to consider this event, because any military actions changed the geopolitical map of our country and had a significant impact on its further socio-economic development. This directly applies to the Livonian War. It will also be interesting to reveal the variety of points of view on the causes of this collision, the opinions of historians on this matter.

Article: Livonian War, its political meaning and consequences

After all, pluralism of opinions indicates that there are many contradictions in views. Consequently, the topic has not been sufficiently studied and is relevant for further consideration.

Purpose This work is to reveal the essence of the Livonian War. To achieve the goal, it is necessary to consistently solve a number of tasks :

- identify the causes of the Livonian War

- analyze its stages

- consider the results and consequences of the war

1.Causes of the Livonian War

After the annexation of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates to the Russian state, the threat of invasion from the east and southeast was eliminated. Ivan the Terrible is faced with new tasks - to return the Russian lands once captured by the Livonian Order, Lithuania and Sweden.

In general, it is possible to clearly identify the causes of the Livonian War. However, Russian historians interpret them differently.

For example, N.M. Karamzin connects the beginning of the war with the ill will of the Livonian Order. Karamzin fully approves of Ivan the Terrible’s aspirations to reach the Baltic Sea, calling them “beneficent intentions for Russia.”

N.I. Kostomarov believes that on the eve of the war, Ivan the Terrible was faced with an alternative - either to deal with Crimea or to take possession of Livonia. The historian explains Ivan IV’s counterintuitive decision to fight on two fronts by “discord” between his advisers.

S.M. Soloviev explains the Livonian War by Russia’s need to “assimilate the fruits of European civilization,” the bearers of which were not allowed into Rus' by the Livonians, who owned the main Baltic ports.

IN. Klyuchevsky practically does not consider the Livonian War at all, since he analyzes the external position of the state only from the point of view of its influence on the development of socio-economic relations within the country.

S.F. Platonov believes that Russia was simply drawn into the Livonian War. The historian believes that Russia could not evade what was happening on its western borders, could not come to terms with unfavorable terms of trade.

M.N. Pokrovsky believes that Ivan the Terrible started the war on the recommendations of certain “advisers” from among the army.

According to R.Yu. Vipper, “The Livonian War was prepared and planned for quite a long time by the leaders of the Elected Rada.”

R.G. Skrynnikov connects the start of the war with Russia’s first success - the victory in the war with the Swedes (1554-1557), under the influence of which plans were put forward to conquer Livonia and establish itself in the Baltic states. The historian also notes that “the Livonian War turned the Eastern Baltic into an arena of struggle between states seeking dominance in the Baltic Sea.”

V.B. Kobrin pays attention to the personality of Adashev and notes his key role in the outbreak of the Livonian War.

In general, formal reasons were found for the start of the war. The real reasons were Russia’s geopolitical need to gain access to the Baltic Sea, as the most convenient for direct connections with the centers of European civilizations, as well as the desire to take an active part in the division of the territory of the Livonian Order, the progressive collapse of which was becoming obvious, but which, unwilling strengthening Russia, hindered its external contacts. For example, the Livonian authorities did not allow more than a hundred specialists from Europe invited by Ivan IV to pass through their lands. Some of them were imprisoned and executed.

The formal reason for the start of the Livonian War was the question of the “Yuriev tribute” (Yuriev, later called Dorpat (Tartu), was founded by Yaroslav the Wise). According to the treaty of 1503, an annual tribute had to be paid for it and the surrounding territory, which, however, was not done. In addition, the Order concluded a military alliance with the Lithuanian-Polish king in 1557.

2. Stages of the war.

The Livonian War can be roughly divided into 4 stages. The first (1558-1561) is directly related to the Russian-Livonian war. The second (1562-1569) involved primarily the Russian-Lithuanian war. The third (1570-1576) was distinguished by the resumption of the Russian struggle for Livonia, where they, together with the Danish prince Magnus, fought against the Swedes. The fourth (1577-1583) is associated primarily with the Russian-Polish war. During this period, the Russian-Swedish war continued.

Let's look at each of the stages in more detail.

First stage. In January 1558, Ivan the Terrible moved his troops to Livonia. The beginning of the war brought him victories: Narva and Yuriev were taken. In the summer and autumn of 1558 and at the beginning of 1559, Russian troops marched throughout Livonia (as far as Revel and Riga) and advanced in Courland to the borders of East Prussia and Lithuania. However, in 1559, under the influence of political figures grouped around A.F. Adashev, who prevented the expansion of the scope of the military conflict, Ivan the Terrible was forced to conclude a truce. In March 1559 it was concluded for a period of six months.

The feudal lords took advantage of the truce to conclude an agreement with the Polish king Sigismund II Augustus in 1559, according to which the order, lands and possessions of the Archbishop of Riga came under the protectorate of the Polish crown. In an atmosphere of acute political disagreements in the leadership of the Livonian Order, its master W. Fürstenberg was removed and G. Ketler, who adhered to a pro-Polish orientation, became the new master. In the same year, Denmark took possession of the island of Ösel (Saaremaa).

The military operations that began in 1560 brought new defeats to the Order: the large fortresses of Marienburg and Fellin were taken, the order army blocking the path to Viljandi was defeated near Ermes, and the Master of the Order Fürstenberg himself was captured. The successes of the Russian army were facilitated by the peasant uprisings that broke out in the country against the German feudal lords. The result of the campaign of 1560 was the virtual defeat of the Livonian Order as a state. The German feudal lords of Northern Estonia became Swedish citizens. According to the Treaty of Vilna of 1561, the possessions of the Livonian Order came under the authority of Poland, Denmark and Sweden, and its last master, Ketler, received only Courland, and even then it was dependent on Poland. Thus, instead of weak Livonia, Russia now had three strong opponents.

Second phase. While Sweden and Denmark were at war with each other, Ivan IV led successful actions against Sigismund II Augustus. In 1563, the Russian army took Plock, a fortress that opened the way to the capital of Lithuania, Vilna, and Riga. But already at the beginning of 1564, the Russians suffered a series of defeats on the Ulla River and near Orsha; in the same year, a boyar and a major military leader, Prince A.M., fled to Lithuania. Kurbsky.

Tsar Ivan the Terrible responded to military failures and escapes to Lithuania with repressions against the boyars. In 1565, the oprichnina was introduced. Ivan IV tried to restore the Livonian Order, but under the protectorate of Russia, and negotiated with Poland. In 1566, a Lithuanian embassy arrived in Moscow, proposing to divide Livonia on the basis of the situation existing at that time. The Zemstvo Sobor, convened at this time, supported the intention of the government of Ivan the Terrible to fight in the Baltic states until the capture of Riga: “It is unsuitable for our sovereign to give up those cities of Livonia, which the king took for protection, but it is better for the sovereign to stand for those cities.” The council's decision also emphasized that abandoning Livonia would harm trade interests.

Third stage. Since 1569 the war becomes protracted. This year, at the Sejm in Lublin, the unification of Lithuania and Poland into a single state took place - the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, with which in 1570 Russia managed to conclude a truce for three years.

Since Lithuania and Poland in 1570 could not quickly concentrate forces against the Moscow state, because were exhausted by the war, Ivan IV began in May 1570 to negotiate a truce with Poland and Lithuania. At the same time, he creates, having neutralized Poland, an anti-Swedish coalition, realizing his long-standing idea of ​​​​forming a vassal state from Russia in the Baltics.

The Danish Duke Magnus accepted Ivan the Terrible’s offer to become his vassal (“goldovnik”) and in the same May 1570, upon his arrival in Moscow, was proclaimed “King of Livonia.” The Russian government pledged to provide the new state, settled on the island of Ezel, with its military assistance and material resources so that it could expand its territory at the expense of the Swedish and Lithuanian-Polish possessions in Livonia. The parties intended to seal the allied relations between Russia and the “kingdom” of Magnus with the marriage of Magnus to the niece of the king, the daughter of Prince Vladimir Andreevich Staritsky - Maria.

The proclamation of the Livonian Kingdom was supposed, according to the calculations of Ivan IV, to provide Russia with the support of the Livonian feudal lords, i.e. all German knighthood and nobility in Estland, Livonia and Courland, and therefore not only an alliance with Denmark (through Magnus), but also, most importantly, alliance and support for the Habsburg Empire. With this new combination in Russian foreign policy, the Tsar intended to create a vice on two fronts for an overly aggressive and restless Poland, which had grown due to the inclusion of Lithuania. Like Vasily IV, Ivan the Terrible also expressed the idea of ​​the possibility and necessity of dividing Poland between the German and Russian states. On a more immediate level, the tsar was concerned about the possibility of creating a Polish-Swedish coalition on his western borders, which he tried with all his might to prevent. All this speaks of the tsar’s correct, strategically deep understanding of the balance of power in Europe and his accurate vision of the problems of Russian foreign policy in the near and long term. That is why his military tactics were correct: he sought to defeat Sweden alone as quickly as possible, until it came to a united Polish-Swedish aggression against Russia.

The article briefly talks about the Livonian War (1558-1583), which was waged by Ivan the Terrible for the right to access the Baltic Sea. The war for Russia was initially successful, but after Sweden, Denmark and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth entered it, it became protracted and ended in territorial losses.

1. Causes of the Livonian War
2. Progress of the Livonian War
3. Results of the Livonian War

Causes of the Livonian War

• Livonia was a state founded by the German knightly order in the 13th century. and included part of the territory of the modern Baltic states. By the 16th century it was a very weak state formation, the power in which was shared between knights and bishops. Livonia was easy prey for an aggressive state. Ivan the Terrible set himself the task of capturing Livonia in order to secure access to the Baltic Sea and in order to prevent its conquest by someone else. In addition, Livonia, being between Europe and Russia, in every possible way prevented the establishment of contacts between them, in particular, the entry of European masters into Russia was practically prohibited. This caused discontent in Moscow.
• The territory of Livonia before the capture by the German knights belonged to the Russian princes. This pushed Ivan the Terrible to war for the return of ancestral lands.
• According to the existing treaty, Livonia was obliged to pay Russia an annual tribute for the possession of the ancient Russian city of Yuryev (renamed Dorpat) and neighboring territories. However, this condition was not met, which was the main reason for the war.

Progress of the Livonian War

• In response to the refusal to pay tribute, Ivan the Terrible in 1558 began a war with Livonia. A weak state, torn by contradictions, cannot resist the huge army of Ivan the Terrible. The Russian army victoriously passes through the entire territory of Livonia, leaving only large fortresses and cities in the hands of the enemy. As a result, by 1560 Livonia, as a state, ceased to exist. However, its lands were divided between Sweden, Denmark and Poland, which declared that Russia must abandon all territorial acquisitions.
• The emergence of new opponents did not immediately affect the nature of the war. Sweden was at war with Denmark. Ivan the Terrible concentrated all his efforts against Poland. Successful military operations led to the capture of Polotsk in 1563. Poland begins to ask for a truce, and Ivan the Terrible convenes the Zemsky Sobor and addresses him with such a proposal. However, the cathedral responds with a sharp refusal, declaring that the capture of Livonia is necessary in economic terms. The war continues, it becomes clear that it will be protracted.
• The situation changes for the worse after Ivan the Terrible introduced the oprichnina. The state, already weakened during a tense war, receives a “royal gift.” The tsar's punitive and repressive measures lead to a decline in the economy; the executions of many prominent military leaders significantly weaken the army. At the same time, the Crimean Khanate intensified its actions, beginning to threaten Russia. In 1571, Moscow was burned by Khan Devlet-Girey.
• In 1569, Poland and Lithuania united into a new strong state - the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. In 1575, Stefan Batory became its king, who later showed the qualities of a talented commander. It has become turning point in the Livonian War. The Russian army holds the territory of Livonia for some time, besieges Riga and Revel, but soon the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Sweden begin active military operations against the Russian army. Batory inflicts a series of defeats on Ivan the Terrible and wins back Polotsk. In 1581 he besieged Pskov, whose courageous defense lasted five months. Batory's lifting of the siege becomes the last victory of the Russian army. Sweden at this time seizes the coast of the Gulf of Finland, which belongs to Russia.
• In 1582, Ivan the Terrible concluded a truce with Stefan Batory, according to which he renounced all his territorial acquisitions. In 1583, a treaty was signed with Sweden, as a result of which the captured lands on the coast of the Gulf of Finland were assigned to it.

Results of the Livonian War

• The war started by Ivan the Terrible promised to be successful. At first, Russia made significant progress. However, due to a number of internal and external reasons, a turning point occurs in the war. Russia loses the captured territories and, ultimately, access to the Baltic Sea, remaining cut off from European markets.