Objective and subjective time.

A person in his everyday life perceives the world at a sensory-contemplative level, where bodily matter, movement, space and time are not separated from each other. No one has ever perceived either “pure” space, or “pure” time, or material bodies outside of space and time. But philosophy throughout its history has tried to understand that there is time and space as such.

Aristotle, identifying time and movement, wrote that both in movement and in time there is always some “before” and some “after” that is different from it. It is through movement that we recognize different “nows” that do not coincide with each other. Time is the sequence of these “nows”, their change, enumeration. It is “the number of motion in the connection between the previous and the subsequent.”

I. Newton spoke about absolute time, which “by itself and in its essence, without any relation to anything external, flows uniformly and is otherwise called duration,” and “absolute space, as a “container” of bodies.” Historically, during the 18th-19th centuries, the concept of absolute time and absolute space (which is sometimes called substantial) became leading both in philosophy and in natural science. This concept was metaphysical (here the term “metaphysics” is used in its particular meaning as the opposite of dialectics), because it broke the connection between moving matter, space and time: it turned out that “pure” space could exist outside of matter or “pure” time, absolutely unconnected with material processes. Nevertheless, these metaphysical ideas about space and time had certain empirical foundations. In the macrocosm, which is the main human habitat, a direct connection between space, time and moving objects is not sensually observed.

meth. An object can be removed from a certain place, but after its removal the spatial topos (from the Greek. topos - place) will not change or disappear. Time is similarly perceived as indifferent to objects.

These ideas were criticized by Hegel, and at a time when science was still metaphysical and mechanistic. “We cannot,” he wrote, “discover any space that would be an independent space; it is always filled space and does not differ anywhere from its filling” and “it is not in time that everything arises and passes away and time itself is this becoming, is the emergence and passing away." That is, long before A. Einstein, Hegel, relying on the method of dialectics, came to the conclusion about the close connection of matter, space and time. Natural scientific arguments refuting metaphysical ideas about the nature of space and time began to take shape only end of the 19th century century.

In the special theory of relativity (1905), A. Einstein established that the geometric properties of space and time depend on the distribution of gravitational masses in them: near heavy objects, the geometric properties of space and time begin to deviate from Euclidean ones, and temporality slows down. The general theory of relativity (GTR), which was completed by Einstein in 1916, showed the dependence of space-time properties on the speed of movement and interaction of material systems: as the speed of movement of bodies approaches the speed of light, their mass increases, and time processes slow down. Einstein himself, explaining the essence of general relativity, wrote: “The essence is this: they used to think that if by some miracle all material things suddenly disappeared, then space and time would remain. According to the theory of relativity, space and time would disappear along with things.”

Objective time is a form of existence of matter that characterizes the duration of existence of all objects, the sequential change of their states, i.e. change and development. Time forms not only a temporal order, but also expresses a causal (principal)

decorous) order of the Universe. The universality of time means that it is inherent in all structures of the universe, but at each level of the organization of matter it manifests itself specifically. In this regard, they talk about the time of the micro-, macro- and megaworld, living (biological and psychological time) and socially organized matter (social time). The objectivity of time means that time permeates all structures of the universe, regardless of the possibility of perception or lack thereof.

Scientists highlight metric And topological properties of time. Main metric characteristics of time are duration And instant. Instant- this is no longer a divisible quantum of duration. Duration is understood as a set of moments enclosed within the boundaries between the initial and final instant of the existence of a particular object. Duration - it is the duration during which the existence of an object persists. The moment and duration are inseparable, determining each other and denying each other the characteristics of time.

TO topological The properties of time include unidirectionality (vectority), one-dimensionality, and irreversibility. These properties, by the way, have not yet received sufficient justification. Here it is appropriate to recall time paradox which was formulated by Aristotle and supplemented by St. Augustine. Aristotle reasoned: “The past does not exist already, the future doesn't exist more, therefore, only the present actually exists.” If we assume that the present itself is contracted into an instant devoid of duration, then Bl’s conclusion is legitimate. Augustine that the present also does not exist. Thus, it turns out that time has no reality at all. This false conclusion about the disappearance of time follows from the assumption that time exists outside of material objects.

Time is one of the unique phenomena for which there are two ways of describing: (a) past-present-future; (b) earlier-simultaneously-later. These types of descriptions are due to the fact that in the understanding of time they are present as a reference

the quantitative aspect, such as the subjective, psychological coloring of the experience of time flow, ideological assessment of the passage of time. In cases where quantitative characteristics of time are recorded, preference is given to the second description. So, they say, for example, 4 minutes earlier, 5 minutes later, etc. (The structure of our language does not allow us to construct sentences like: 4 hours “past”, 5 minutes “future”). The combination of concepts “past - present - future” is more suitable for conveying a psychological, qualitatively meaningful description of time. These two time languages ​​were isolated and delimited in 1908 by J. McTaggart, which made it possible to clarify the differences between objective and subjective time. Events existing in the past, present and future continuously change temporal certainty: past events become more and more past, future ones - less and less future.

Time as a metric duration is of great importance in human life. The individual is included in time processes both as an observer and as a participant, and the course and course of events become largely dependent on him. Concept subjective time reflects this dependence. If a person has no control over physical time, then the organization of his own life activity and its rhythm depend on the person. A person opens up in time, strives to use time profitably, effectively, rationally. From the point of view of retrospective analysis, all events are lined up in a chain of linear dependence, where the connection between the past, present and future is strictly and unambiguously traced, but as soon as you turn your gaze to the future, it becomes clear that the future is not a predetermined state, it depends on human activities, from his choice. The future can be influenced, it can be built and changed. The German philosopher of science Hans Reichenbach noted in this regard that we cannot change the past, but we can change the future. We can have protocols of the past, but not of the future.

It's important to note that the existence of a person as (a) a complex macrosystem, (b) a living organism and (c) a social being proceeds, as it were, on different time scales with different relative

correspond to each other's speeds in the presence of a single reference physical time.

Subjective time is a qualitatively different metered duration from objective time, which reflects in our consciousness, based on the information volume of psychological memory, a chain of past, existing and expected events and states. It is psychologized and depends on the intensity of internal sensations, soul experience, memory and imagination of a person, his temperament. Subjective time, reproducing information images, indicates not so much the physical existence of events and processes in the past and present, but rather their significance for a person.

Within subjective time it varies conceptual And perceptual(from lat. perceptio - perception) reflection of time. Conceptual reflection occurs with the help of our knowledge and ideas. Perceptual reflection of time is the feeling of time in people's sensory perception. Subjective time, just like objective-physical time, has dimensions: past, present, future, with the only difference that information-virtual inversion is possible in it, when a person, actually and physically being in the present, can “plunge” into childhood, relive first love, feel the bitterness of possible losses, etc. Subjective time is characterized by the possibility of moving along the arrow of time from the present to the past and future, or repeated reproduction in experiences of present events. Subjective time introduces significance and evaluation, emotionality and intensity of experience into actually occurring processes. It is fundamentally uneven; it does not have a single true measure of duration.

Traces of disappeared, “gone in the past” events and states remain in the neural structures of the brain and can be “unarchived” (from the word “archive”) and activated. The creator of cybernetics N. Wiener hypothesized that a person’s intuition of time is connected with the rhythms of his brain, in particular

ity, with an alpha rhythm characterizing its activity. The sense of time is also associated with metabolic processes. Since the metabolic rate decreases in old age, the internal clockwork slows down. Living organisms seem to have a built-in “biological clock” that coordinates its work with biological rhythms, which, in turn, are associated with the geophysical rhythms of the changing seasons and time of day. At the same time, there are neither seconds nor hours in internal time.

In relation to the future, a person does not have those “traces” that are imprinted in the structure of the brain, but at the mental level he can simulate upcoming events and form an image of a probabilistic future. On the basis of such a forecast and modeling, a certain pre-programming of the future situation, behavior and activity occurs, which has a determining significance. An information flow extending into the future, an information model of the future is formed, which is created by the power of the consciousness of the subject himself. This is a peculiar feature of the future subjective time.

V. Wundt explained the subjective time of perception of the present as a “single-momentary perception” of a series of successive events (we can say that we are talking about scanning temporal duration). A person does not realize and does not perceive the every second discreteness of time; on the contrary, he feels surrounded by temporal continuity, i.e. constant time stream. The quantum of subjective time can be filled with both an information message from the past and contain a message to the future. In internal subjective reality, a person easily “moves in time,” and therefore a moment, while remaining a moment, turns out to be current and lasting, which is especially characteristic of states called “two-track experiences,” when stress is so strong that a person perceives moments past life as a stream of experiences accompanying the immediate present.

Outstanding philosophers of the 20th century A. Bergson, E. Husserl, M. Heidegger, O. Spengler and others devoted a significant place in their teachings to understanding the characteristics and features of subjective time. The French were the first to speak about the internal sense of time, its “length” at the beginning of the 20th century philosopher A. Bergson. It was this time, the bearer of which is the subject, that he considered true. External time was interpreted by him as the participation of the surrounding world in internal duration. O. Spengler in his book “The Decline of Europe” also noted that the word “time” denotes something personal, something that is felt with inner certainty, as opposed to the alien that interferes in our lives. E. Husserl introduced the concepts of “time-consciousness”, “immanent time of the flow of knowledge”, accompanied by experiences. M. Heidegger spoke about the “temporality of presence” as a way of being for a finite person. In this “temporality of presence” the person himself is revealed and the world is revealed to him. K. Jaspers identified “axial time” to conceptualize the relationship between the past, present and future in history.

Temporal issues also include the question of diversity types temporary relationships. In addition to subjective time, these include the internal and external time of the system, the time of human existence, the cultural and historical time of the era, etc.

Social and cultural-historical time.

Social existence is the same reality as the world of physical objects, and therefore has its own time. Social time is a set of temporal relations in society, temporal parameters of people’s activities that characterize the processes of variability occurring in society.

Social time has its own organization and structure: (a) time that characterizes the history of the people and humanity;

(b) the heyday of nations and ethnic groups, one or another social
political system, this or that state or country;

(c) the time of human existence.

Historical transformations reflect the social time of mankind and indicate its unevenness. Social time is a contradictory process, including phases of deceleration and acceleration, stagnation and explosion, cyclicality and irreversibility. Thus, in the era of revolutionary transformations, historical time accelerates, “compresses”, becoming saturated with epoch-making events. Modern civilization is increasing the pace of its development, while in the early stages of the development of human society they were slowed down.

In the structure of social time we can distinguish repetition And orientation towards tradition. We are, of course, talking about relative rather than absolute repeatability. However, society must constantly reproduce the entire development cycle: production, distribution, exchange and consumption. Otherwise, it will be doomed to death. In their life activities, people must also everywhere repeat the roles and functions socially distributed among them, and social structures must comply with institutional norms. In this regard, there are synchronous(coincidence in time of processes and their actual interaction) and diachronic(successive time interactions) social time. Due to the inconsistency of synchronous and diachronic processes in social time, contradictions may arise, the resolution of which requires active human activity, participation human factor. In the structure of social time there are rhythm And sequence. Rhythm characterizes a certain repeatability of simultaneously or sequentially existing processes and events. Rhythm is opposed arrhythmia, when social transformations occur and the life of society acquires a chaotic, disordered character. The unity of change and sustainability gives rise to periodicity, those. change of periods. Thus, the modern Russian economy is a period of post-crisis changes. Before this, there was a period of market transformations of the post-socialist economy, and even earlier - a period of centrally planned economy.

The structure of social time is primary in relation to the activity of the individual. The quality of human life depends on whether the rhythm of human life coincides with the rhythm of society or lags behind it. In modern post-industrial society, social time is picking up speed and “densifying”. The natural biological rhythms of the human body become incommensurate with the increasing rhythms of social time, which leads to many negative consequences. There is a protest against the crazy “running” of post-industrial society. The transition to an intensive path of social development involves reducing the loss of social time. But the very phrase “save time” is applicable only in relation to social, and not physical time, the metric of which is set by nature itself. Social time can be comfortable for an individual, or it can act as alien and hostile to him, imposing an unbearable rhythm and speed. Therefore, social design of the future becomes very significant for humans. This design takes on different forms: (a) utopia, i.e. what is really impossible; (b) the cult of the future, when sacrifice is made in the name of the future. However, refusal to project the future leads to the emergence of a life attitude, according to which it is important to “capture moments”, live one day at a time, and not take into account the transitivity property (from the Latin transitus - transition) of time, which means a refusal to transmit experience from generation to generation.

The following time courses can also be distinguished: (a) slow flow of social time; (b) a time of active struggle between the past and the future; (c) explosive time or abrupt time course; (d) cyclic time. But other, less indisputable, types of temporal relations of social structures can be identified: (a) illusory time; (b) a time of uncertainty caused by the appearance of irregular social pulsations and arrhythmia; (c) slowly running time, when the future is actualized in the present and

hardens; (d) good and bad times, prosperous and unfavorable, etc.

Cultural-historical time is characterized by the fact that it indicates the originality of the development of history and culture. Cultural-historical time characterizes the duration of existence and qualitative changes in the states of certain civilizations, each of which has a time of origin, flourishing and decline. Time in culture is closely connected with the feeling of the frailty of life, with the spiritual experiences of a person and the search for an answer to the question of the meaning of his life, the meaning and purpose of history. Cultural and historical time is divided into the period before and after the birth of Christ. In the history of culture there is the concept of “sacred” time, with which rituals, sacrifices, etc. were associated. In religion, human time is perceived specifically as inverse: physical death is interpreted as a true birth for a new life, and physical birth as a difficult road of preparation for a new birth (death) ). There are many metaphors that aptly express the characteristics of cultural and historical time: “the time of the church,” “the time of merchants,” “the time of tyrants,” “the all-consuming Kronos,” etc.

A characteristic of cultural-historical time is its personification, when time acquires its own name, metaphorically decorating cultural discourse: fate, destiny, golden age, end of the world, disease of time, etc. Personification of time is widespread in mythology, poetry, fiction, it penetrates into into everyday speech. As the Russian philosopher N. Berdyaev noted, the last problem associated with time is the problem of death.

Ideas about cultural-historical time help to understand the “energy” of time associated with the specifics of each local cultural formation. The process of cultural development over time is captured in the total potential of cultural values ​​that each subsequent generation inherits, and cultural-historical time indicates the connection between traditions and innovations, the statics and dynamics of time. Cultural

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historical time, having its own specificity, is closely related to the physical. Thus, calendar dates mark discoveries, outstanding events and the highest achievements of certain stages of the development of society, helping to keep past history in the memory of mankind, without which neither society nor people have a present.

The concept of “chronotope” as an expression of a specific unity of spatio-temporal characteristics.

In reality, it is impossible to separate the spatiotemporal characteristics of processes and events. Prominent natural scientists have repeatedly spoken about this. Thus, G. Minkowski wrote: “From now on, space by itself and time by itself completely disappear into the kingdom of shadows, and only a kind of union of both of these concepts retains its independent existence.” In order to reflect this concrete unity, the concept was introduced - "chronotope"(from Greek chronos - time + topos- place), expressing the continuous unity of space-time dimension associated with the cultural and historical meaning of events and phenomena. One of the first to use this concept was neurophysiologist A. Ukhtomsky: “From the point of view of the chronotope, there are no longer abstract points, but living and indelible events from existence; no longer abstract curved lines in space, but “world lines” that connect long-past events with the events of the present moment, and through them with the events of the future disappearing in the distance.” And Ukhtomsky introduced the concept of “chronotope” into psychology and neurophysiology, assessing it as a dominant of consciousness, a center and focus of excitation, prompting the body in a specific situation to take certain actions. M. Bakhtin used the concept of “chronotope” in literary criticism and aesthetics. These were the first projections of the idea of ​​a continuous interrelation of spatial and temporal relations into the plane of humanitarian knowledge. The concept of “chronotope” reflects the universality of space-time relations: it is applicable not only to material, but also to ideal processes. The study of culture requires continual

nogo approach, i.e. studying its existence taking into account the unity of space-time dimension. The heuristic nature of the concept of “chronotope” is manifested in the study of the “core” and “periphery” of culture, the analysis of related characteristics of cultures and cultural rejections, the attraction of opposing cultures, their assimilation, etc.

Using the concept of “chronotope” to understand the relationship between temporal and spatial events within the framework of an artistic and literary work, M. Bakhtin, along with the chronotope of ancient culture, identified three types of novel-epic chronotope: adventurous, adventurous-everyday and biographical, while insisting on the use the concept of chronotope only within the framework of literature. However, the potential of this concept is broader. Thus, the specificity of the relationship to time and space of art forms allows us to divide them into (a) temporary (music); (b) spatial (painting, sculpture); (c) spatio-temporal (literature, theater). We can talk about the cultural chronotope of the Ancient East or Ancient Greece, Christianity or the Renaissance, which will reflect the value orientations dominant in these cultures. With its help, the originality of the individual worldview, as well as the specificity of the ethnic, historical and cultural meaning of time and space, can be expressed. In Bakhtin's concept, the chronotope is not so much a universal philosophical category as a mode of existence of cultural meaning. A chronotope is not just the unity of time and space, but an acute experience of this unity, drawing into an emotional whirlpool everyone who approaches this semantic core of a cultural-historical object. Spatio-temporal semantic unity gives rise to the effect of attraction of souls, because it requires their active “co-working” to enter the semantic space. Experience goes into the past, makes room for meaning as the present and gives rise to a desire for the future. This is the “secret” of the artistic chronotope. The chronotope assumes the coexistence of different eras in a single “big time”,

it turns on the mechanism of associations, establishing “the exchange of work with life.” The world of the hero, the world of the author and the world of the reader/listener are combined, forming a certain specific spatio-temporal unity.

It should be taken into account that if before the introduction of the concept of “chronotope” it was believed that we cognize space and experience time with value, then the concept of “chronotope” reflected the “value weight of the Self and the other” in the context of a holistic and at the same time lasting spatio-temporal face of the era. We experience processes associated with time, and spatial outlines, landscapes, styles of bygone eras, which are given to us through works of art. The aesthetic image of space gives rise to that additional energy that evokes a person’s best thoughts and directs him to arranging his own living environment. Moreover, this or that image of space can create the appropriate mood of celebration, joy, delight or sadness, melancholy, sorrow. The image of space is also associated with the type of activity: work space, space for relaxation, sports, meetings, and finally, confinement space. The construction of one or another image of space is a task that, within acceptable limits, is commensurate with human capabilities. Of course, it is hardly justifiable to turn back rivers, or erase mountains from the face of the earth and change the landscape beyond recognition, but man has always organized space in accordance with the style of the era, aesthetic preferences or its economic and economic purpose. Architectural solutions in the construction of a city or suburb are spheres of human activity and, at the same time, images of space, ordered in accordance with the cultural time of a particular era. Cultural-historical time is pressed into spatial images. Therefore, we can talk about a certain human power over space, cultivated by the time of an era, revealing its content in a particular time context.

So, the concept of “chronotope” does not simply indicate the unity of spatio-temporal characteristics, but emphasizes precisely the specific historical unity, i.e. a unity in which priority is given to chronos, time. Here time appears in its “done form.” It is no coincidence that the term “chronotope” was chosen rather than topochron. The concept of chronotope allows a person to enter the semantic space-time associated with our lives. By recording the here-and-now state of cultural existence, the chronotope allows it to last and diversify. In this regard, it is legitimate for D. Likhachev to distinguish “closed” time as time that flows only within the framework of a certain plot, and “open” time, which is included in the broader flow of events of a historical era.

Expanding the range of application of the concept of “chronotope” is characteristic of A. Ukhtomsky, who believed that it creates the opportunity to see the face of another, “to see and recognize both Socrates and Spinoza,” who seem to be really approaching and opening up. In this regard, he proposed introducing the category of a Person existing in the space of historical time. For him, a person is “a living, integral, concrete unity that comes into world history in order to bring into it something completely exceptional and irreplaceable - therefore, a terribly responsible being and at the same time requiring terrible responsibility in relation to itself on the part of others.” " The chronotope just indicates a certain “cohesion of space and time,” as well as the connection of a person with event space-time. The somatic experience of generations, conveyed in the traditions of words and everyday life, requiring maturation in order to open up in action and come to light for everyone - this is “the chronotope in being and the dominant for us.”

Currently, in connection with the processes of globalization, we can talk about the importance of the concept of chronotope for the actual understanding of the unity of space-time transformations. The possibility of creating an integrated image of the world contained in the concept of “chronotope” allows not only to identify

General characteristics life and development trends, but also to understand the human dimension of the world and the historical process as a whole. At the same time, the responsibility of each person for one or another formation of event “world lines” (Ukhtomsky) becomes obvious. This responsibility is formed before any rational reflection, for, as A. Ukhtomsky believed, “heart, intuition and conscience are the most far-sighted things we have.” The guessed and assumed rhythm of events in their chronotopic perspective is a particularly significant link in socio-political forecasts and ideological orientations.

Interest in the topic of social space and time is associated with cultural and phenomenological contexts and is dictated by the relevance of these problems in modern Russian society. Over the past 20 years, Russian culture has faced a number of difficult challenges. The unprecedented scale of sociocultural changes, the development of globalization processes, the strengthening of foreign cultural influence, as well as the influence of means mass media, the increasing level of sociocultural differentiation - all these factors put Russian culture under the threat of a change in identity. In conditions of sociocultural transition, there are significant gaps in ideas about cultural space and time. This is manifested, in particular, in a sharp narrowing of the space of identity to a narrow local level (clan, corporate, ethnocentric, etc.) while simultaneously strengthening global thinking. In the perception of cultural flint, there are tendencies to destroy the semantic unity

ties between the past, present and future. For a deeper understanding of the foundations of civilizational integration, it is necessary to consider the issues of semantic development of space and time.

Social space, inscribed in the space of the biosphere, has a special human meaning. It is functionally divided into a number of subspaces, the nature of which and their interrelationships change historically as society develops. The peculiarity of social space is that the world of cultural things surrounding a person, their spatial organization has supra-natural, social significant characteristics. The holistic system of social life has its own spatial architectonics, which is not limited only to the relationships of material things, but includes their relationship to a person, his social connections and those meanings that are fixed in the system of socially significant ideas.

The specificity of social space is closely related to the specificity of social time, which is the internal time of social life and, as it were, inscribed in the external time of natural processes.

Social time is a quantitative assessment of the path traveled by humanity, a measure of the variability of social processes, historically occurring transformations in people's lives. On early stages social development, the rhythms of social processes were slow.

Tribal societies and the first civilizations that replaced them ancient world for many centuries reproduced a certain way of life social life. Social time in these societies was quasi-cyclical in nature, the reference point for social practice was the repetition of already accumulated experience, the reproduction of actions and deeds of the past, which appeared in the form of traditions and were often of a sacred nature. Linearly directed historical time manifests itself most clearly in modern society, characterized by the acceleration of the development of the entire system of social processes. This acceleration is even more characteristic of the modern era.

Identifying the role of spatiotemporal factors in modern sociocultural dynamics acquires particular significance in the context of a radical change in ideas about space and time associated with globalization. Globalization and localization dictate new requirements for understanding the problems of civilizational and cultural identity. Many of these problems can be solved within the framework of a spatiotemporal, chronotopic (in the words of M.M. Bakhtin) analysis of modern civilization.

The categories “space” and “time” are given an important place in the theory of civilizations. Any civilization, if we consider it in line with the cultural-historical approach, is characterized by spatiotemporal characteristics that reflect the deep relationship between culture and the corresponding “place of development” (P.N. Savitsky) or landscape (L.N. Gumilyov), which set the limits variability of time rhythms. In this sense, according to A.S. Panarin, the civilizational paradigm “rehabilitates” the category of space and opposes stage-based progressivist concepts based on the belief in overcoming any spatial differences over time. Each local civilization is also described as a keeper of time, which reflects the history corresponding to this civilization, connecting the past, present and future, as well as “eternal” values.

Of particular importance in connection with the analysis of methodological foundations modern theory social space and time has the legacy of Bakhtin. In his works, he presented a theoretical justification for the concept of “chronotope,” reflecting the semantic unity of the space-time continuum, and also showed the role of chronotopic certainty in the processes of meaning formation. Bakhtin called chronotope (literally “time-space”) “the existing interconnection of temporal and spatial relations, artistically mastered in literature.” Chronotopes concentrate various temporal realities: time human life, historical time, ideas about Eternity and are a kind of structuring basis of the semantic space into which the meanings of each specific event fit.

“Signs of time are revealed in space, and space is comprehended and changed by time,” noted Bakhtin, believing that living contemplation “captures the chronotope in all its integrity and completeness,” and our artistic representations are “permeated with chronotopic representations of various degrees and volumes.” This creates the opportunity to comprehend events, chains of connections (storylines) through the chronotope, which serves as the primary point of signification and semantic concretization of certain events and processes. Moreover, each chronotope includes many chronotopes of specific events and processes related to smaller spatio-temporal scales, which in turn are integrated into a general, relatively holistic chronotopic model. In the structure of this model, individual chronotopes can be included in each other, contrast, coexist, intertwine, replace, etc. Bakhtin characterized the relationship between chronotopes as dialogical (in a broad sense).

The concept of chronotope is also applicable to the assessment of existing cultures and civilizations. From the point of view of chronotopic analysis, modern civilizations appear as internally heterogeneous in cultural and spatial terms. Each ethnic group, Gumilyov believed, carries within itself character traits, formed under the conditions of a certain landscape. When moving or resettling, ethnic groups look for areas that correspond to their cultural characteristics: “The Ugrians settled in forests, the Turks and Mongols settled in the steppes, the Russians, exploring Siberia, populated the forest-steppe zone and river banks.”

The complex interaction of any civilization with its spatial environment determines the specifics of the meaning of space and the passage of cultural time. Different cultures (including within the same civilization) have their own specific ways of understanding time. We can talk about different depths of awareness of time, differences in the nature of temporary changes, emphasizing the past, present or future, a preference for stability and order or change and diversity. Gumilyov noted that in different cultures and civilizations people count time according to their own needs. If they don't use complex systems

counting, not because they don’t know how, but because they don’t see the point in it. Thus, the Turks introduced linear chronology when they found themselves at the head of a huge power, but as soon as the Kaganate fell, they returned to the cyclical countdown of time. In this regard, it is not the systems of reference that are important, but their diversity, which characterizes the degree of complexity of a culture. Gumilyov identified a phenological system of counting time, necessary for the adaptation of the collective to natural phenomena; a cyclical calendar used to record daily events; “living chronology” - to designate events within the life of one generation; linear timing - for political and business purposes, etc. In addition, time can be divided into separate eras, which are somehow reflected in the public consciousness.

Civilization preserves time, connecting the past, present and future, thereby creating a special - supra-human, supra-ethnic, supra-local dimension of time, expressed in a large tradition and characteristic ideas about the historical process and having a significant impact, including on everyday life. This is not only related to developed systems perceptions and counting of time that exist in every civilization, but also ideas about timeless “eternal” values, images and meanings that constitute the sacred sphere of civilizational regulation.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST

1. Bakhtin M.M. Epic and novel. St. Petersburg, 2000.

2. Berdyaev N.L. The fate of Russia. M., 1990.

3. Gorin D.G. Space and time in the dynamics of Russian civilization. M., 2003.

4. Gumilev L.N. Ethnosphere: History of people and history of nature. M., 1993.

5. Husserl E. The crisis of European humanity and philosophy // Questions of philosophy. 1986. No. 3.

6. Panarin L. S. Russia in the cycles of world history. M., 1999.

7. Heidegger M. Art and space // Self-awareness of European culture of the 20th century. M., 1991.

8. El and Ade M. The myth of the eternal return. Archetypes and repetition. St. Petersburg, 1998.

9. Jaspers K. The meaning and purpose of history. M., 1991.

Having defined in general outline social reality, let's deal with it now forms her, i.e. social space and time. We postulate that space and time are respectively extensive And intense forms of being, i.e. space is the location of one near with another, near another, and time is the sequence of one after another. The basic archetypal structure of the social chronotope is rooted in mythologies. Space expresses Apollonian, and time - Dionysian side of life.

Generally speaking, society reveals itself in social philosophy Apollonian, primarily in an extensive way, i.e. as a unity coexisting much - in the form of a social space, which has its own social geometry (say, “ vertical structure world", hierarchy). Social philosophy in the narrow sense is the philosophy of social space 107.

Emphasizing the unity of two forms of existence, we will talk about space-time, or, using the term of M. M. Bakhtin, about chronotope 108. This gives us the opportunity to discuss social philosophy in the broad sense of the word, including the comprehension of both extensive and intensive forms of being.

3.5.1. ONTOLOGICAL STATUS OF SPACE-TIME

To understand the ontological status of space-time, it is necessary to present substantial and relational approaches to it 1 .

Substance approach to space-time assumes that the chronotope is understood as something that independently exists along with matter and consciousness, as their empty “container”. All objects and subjects are thought to exist in space-time, and this space-time has an existence independent of objects and subjects. Space is pure extension, and time is pure duration in which objects are immersed 110. The substantial concept of the chronotope found its final expression in I. Newton: absolute empty space is the container of matter and does not depend on it, remaining “always the same and motionless” 1P.

Substance concept- this is a thought organic to ordinary common sense. Relational approach to space-time is, on the contrary, a difficult thought to imagine in everyday life. The relational approach was outlined by Aristotle and fully formed by G. Leibniz: “I... assert that without matter there is no space and that space in itself does not represent absolute reality” 112. From the point of view of the relational concept, space and time are not special substantial entities, but forms existence of objects. Space expresses the coexistence and coordination of objects, time expresses the sequence of their states 113. Depending on whether a material object exists or does not exist in space, space changes.

It follows that as the objects located in space-time are, so is space-time itself. Therefore, depending on a particular picture of the world, we can typologize, for example, physical, chemical, biological and, finally, social space-time. If we recognize the existence of a special social space-time, then we stand on relational(Leibnizian) point of view and prefer it substantial(Newtonian). We thereby reject that forms of social

beings are external to this being and can exist independently of it. In other words, we assume that social existence itself generates its forms 114.

In close connection with social space-time there are two more types of forms of being: human space-time (i.e. the form of existence of a human individual) and space-time humanity(in the Universe). Social space-time sets models for the space-time of all humanity, and the chronotope of an individual gives both social space-time and the space-time of all humanity the reality of direct experience.

3.5.2. SOCIAL SPACE-TIME

The connection between social space-time and the above discussion is obvious. social order. Space-time as a form of being is, in essence, order social existence. Now we can look at ourselves differently social reality. Social reality arises when space-time as some abstract form filled with energy (in a sense, “force”) and matter (i.e., “resistance”).

3.5.2.1. Space

Like territory

At one pole of social space there is the archetype close, on another - given. The distance as such appears, for example, in the form of the already mentioned “emptiness” of Democritus, the infinite space of I. Newton 115 . Near and far as mythological images, found already in the Rig Veda, are closely related to separation neighbors And distant(for example, in F. Nietzsche). Social space also includes images that modify and rationalize near and far, namely - horizon And frame.

Territory as a concept of social philosophy (externalization of social reality) is no longer figuratively-mythological, but rational concretizes the concept of social space and has a specific meaning in modern European civilization.

It is essential to dilute large territory And small territory. A large territory is given either conceptually or through the media. A small territory is determined by the direct experiences of the individual and his direct communications, for example, “small homeland”. Let's look at them one by one.

Large territory. One of the most characteristic manifestations of the externalization of social reality is territory of the country. On the-

the clan is objectified in its territory, and the territory as a value for a particular community is ambivalent. On the one hand, territory is an absolute value. One of the important national imperatives is “we will not give up a single inch of our native land!” - But, on the other hand, territory is a burden that requires great efforts of the ethnic group in order to develop it. A. Toynbee once noted, for example, that the conquest of Siberia cost Russia civilization 116.

For a large area, separation is essential center And periphery. The center organizes a large territory as a single whole and collects it. But there is also a natural conflict between the center and the periphery, sometimes intensifying and sometimes fading - a conflict that is found in a variety of forms: economic, political, spiritual, etc.

Small territories, commensurate with human space (for example, a city, native landscape, etc.) are organized primarily architecturally. This reveals the socio-philosophical meaning of architecture. Here it is also necessary to note that the small space is given sound, for example, ringing a bell ( church bells, alarm bell, clock chiming at the town hall or on the Kremlin tower). Architecture and music in their entirety ensure the unity of physical (geographic) space, on the one hand, and social space, on the other. We can say that it is in this unity that, in fact, arises cultural space-time.

When at 12 o'clock at night New Year there is a live broadcast on the radio from Red Square in Moscow and the chimes are heard throughout the country, a large territory of the country turns into a small territory capable of direct emotional perception, “covered” by the ringing of the chimes. This is how the feeling of unity of the homeland is cultivated.

3.5.2.2. Time

Time in social philosophy is revealed as simultaneity 18 . Plurality in temporal terms is “fragmented” as the coexistence of individual and group times.

Like history

There are at least two concepts of time.

The first comes from Antiquity. It lies in the fact that the world is eternal and time is infinite. The concrete embodiment of this concept of time is the so-called eternal return. The Hindu tradition distinguishes four centuries (yugas), which succeed each other, and after the fourth yuga, the Kali-yuga, where we now live, should again

step first south. Hesiod also distinguishes four centuries: golden, silver, bronze, iron. Then - a universal catastrophe and... all over again. According to Hesiod, we live in the last Iron Age 119. With the same necessity with which nature will once eliminate the thinking spirit on Earth, it will give birth to it somewhere in the Universe again, said F. Engels, unconsciously (and not consistently enough) accepting the ancient concept of time.

The second concept of time is biblical. It postulates the beginning of the world and the inevitability of its end. Moreover, the last event is one-time and irreparable. No new generation is conceivable. The world will absolutely end. And from this second concept follows a constant and intense expectation of the end.

The essentially linear idea of ​​social progress 120 is a rationalized and secularized biblical model of time. Progress expresses a type of social time that characterizes an irreversible change in the direction of positive values.

Like modernity

Modernity is something that is becoming, something that is happening, a moment of change, movement in being. Real being reveals itself in modern times through social reality created by people. Or: modernity is a moment of existence that is amenable to conscious change, something that is “fixable,” something that “can be done better” 121. Modernity depends on the “length of will” that connects generations. The “long will” of society presupposes, for example, that the values ​​and goals of grandfathers are embodied not only by the grandfathers and fathers themselves, but also by their grandchildren. “Short will” is revealed when the grandson, with no less enthusiasm, destroys what the grandfather so actively built 122. The “longer” the will, the larger, more extended, “more spacious” modernity, the greater the freedom. The "size" of modernity is a measure of social freedom 123.

It is effective to analyze the idea of ​​modernity using the apparatus that E. Husserl developed in his work on the internal consciousness of time 124. For Husserl the concepts are extremely important retention And proten-tions, which means, respectively, the memory of what just happened and the experience of what was also immediately expected 125.

Like the rhythm

Temporal processes of society proceed rhythmically 126.

To characterize social time, it is essential to highlight certain accents, i.e. emergency moments, kairos(P. Tillich). A special case of such kairos is obviously the “Axial Age” (K. Jaspers). In contrast to kairos, one should

denote a state that can be metaphorically called historical slumber, dream of history 127. The sleep of history is a period when nothing seems to happen 128. Historical development in time appears as an alternation of kairos and slumber. This is, in the most general terms, the rhythm of history.

3.5.2.3. Settlement and nomadism

Within the framework of the proposed model of social chronotope, an opposition arises At home(which is essentially the otherness of the Mother’s Womb) and Roads 129. Traveling, moving, staying on the Road means passing through Border 130. Two fundamental strategies of societies are based on these archetypes: settled life And nomadism. Actually, civilized sociality presupposes, first of all, settled life, a high culture of the Home, of a developed space. On the contrary, nomadism is associated with a pre-civilized (and uncivilized) state, with barbarism in the literal sense or with “civilized barbarism.” Nomadism - spontaneous, Dionysian nature, while the inner nature of settled life is Apollonism And culture.

New European civilization paradoxically has signs of strongly expressed nomadism, which is found not only in the direct form of a passion for movement, but also in

“internal” nomadism, which appears as a desire for a new development

1 ?i di new, i.e. in the very ideology of progress as the highest value.

Widely understood nomadism is organic to spiritual life in general

every movement of the spirit.

First of all, purely externally, so to speak, “technologically”, philosophizing is a “road” and in this sense a nomadic activity. Socrates' dialogues are strikingly reminiscent of the so-called carriage conversations. It is thanks to the journey that my Self enters another space, not physical. Walking and movement stimulate thought. Any road is a road from physical space to spiritual space. The peripatetic “technology” of philosophizing is based on the technology of unhurried movement 132. It is no coincidence that the British say that travel is the same as education. In practical philosophy care- universal resolution of moral conflicts, as Marcus Aurelius wrote about 133.

Modern Western civilization, on the one hand, creates a high settled culture. This is expressed, for example, in the fact that the modern city, especially in Western Europe, gives rise to an amazing feeling freedom in tight spaces. On the other hand, the West profanes the high meaning of philosophically understood nomadism, reducing it to the tourism industry.

3.5.2.4. Transport and travel

The artifact of social existence, which consists in the fact that we live among things that have meanings, things to which meanings are assigned, as if taken out of non-objectified social reality, has as its most important point moving in social space, in territories and, accordingly, transport. Those tools and implements that enable movement weaken attachment to a place, to space, to a given territory. The metaphysical meaning of transport is that with its help there is a partial restoration of freedom lost as a result of the externalization of the settled world in things.

Movement in this regard has an exceptional metaphysical meaning. It is movement that sets the beginning of freedom: “the plant is something "cosmic" an animal is also a “microcosm” in relation to To macrocosm. A living creature is a microcosm only due to its isolation from the universe, which makes it capable of independently determining its position in it...” 134 New European civilization (“Faustian man”) is characterized by “an indomitable impulse into the distance” 135. Truly before us common place new European thinking 136.

Displacement plays an essential role in all its forms in the most different cultures 137. In this regard, we can talk about the specific meaning of the activity of travel, about the importance and originality of the figure of the traveler. Travelers often combined the roles of warrior, conqueror and merchant. However, as the traveler separates himself from these functions, he begins to discover his deep sociocultural meaning. The model of the traveler is based on the model of the cultural hero. Keeping in his soul the image of his homeland, the image and language of his people, his culture, he is ready to perceive the images of other countries, combining them in his inner world. Returning to his homeland, he becomes a link with other civilizations, cultures, and peoples. A traveler is a person who brings coherence to the social world. In a sense, he is the embodiment of global sociality as such 138.

So, let's draw conclusions from this chapter, which introduces the most important category of social reality.

Social reality represents a special status of reality because we know it from the inside, We create it ourselves through our actions. Therefore, it allows for a deeper understanding of the category of reality

at all. Plurality is an attribute of social reality. Society is the existence of one in many things and many in one.

The plurality of the social appears as a system of relations, the existence of which is as real as the relationship of things and ideas. Relations fall into relations of equality and relations of difference. The first set the possibility of organizing integrity, and the second are deployed in various forms agony, competitions that make it possible to build society as an integral hierarchical system.

Relationships are supplemented in social reality by activity and objectivity. Human activity in general is characterized by a fundamental disconnect between stimulus and response, which is a condition for the possibility of freedom. The activity that generates social reality is not only deed, but also word and thought. Social reality is capable of objectification And disobjectification, fixed in language and in things. The objective side of social reality acts as a condition for the possibility of social stability.

The unity of relationships, activity and objectivity forms a social order that opposes social chaos. Social order appears as a system of laws of society, which are understood as, firstly, normative instructions, and secondly, as some naturally occurring trends in the functioning and development of society. Chaos is not a purely negative principle, but also carries within itself fruitfulness, the possibility of the development of reality, the response of society to the challenges of the world. Social chaos is found mainly in such forms as transition periods, revolutions and wars.

Social chaos is experienced as evil, the sources of which are seen in the very plurality of the social, in the accumulation of errors over time, in the alienation of power.

Social chronotope, i.e. social space-time is, respectively, extensive And intense forms of social reality, i.e. space is the arrangement of one near with another, near another, and time is the sequence of one after another. Social space-time is created by people in historical process, when geographic space is organized as territory, and astronomical time as history. In social reality, means of transport and communications play an extremely important role, organizing society into a single whole, and the activity of movement is always highlighted as one of the most important in the constitution of social reality.

1 From late lat. realis - “real”.

2 Discovered for the new European civilization primarily in mathematics
coy and logic.

3 V in this case we do not delve into the controversial issue of to what extent
“social ontology” is a metaphor, and in some cases it is a strict concept. Postulated
exactly the latter. In connection with the problem of social ontology, see: Gaidenko P. P.
Breakthrough to the transcendent: New ontology of the 20th century. M., 1997; Gubin V.D. Onto
logic: the problem of being in modern European philosophy. M., 1998.

4 Genesis, reality And reality for now we will use as
synonyms.

5 See: Spengler O. The decline of Europe. Essays on the morphology of world history. T. 2:
World historical perspectives. M., 1998. S. 54, 57.

6 Wed: Epstein M. N. Philosophy of the possible. St. Petersburg, 2001.

7 See, for example: Hamilton J., Smith. E. et al. A virtual reality //
Business Week. 1993. No. 1. pp. 28-36; Nosov N.A. Virtual reality // Questions
philosophy. 1999. No. 10. P. 152-164.

8 See: Buber M. Me and You // Buber M. Two images of faith. M., 1995. P. 15-92. Cm.
Also: Frank S. L. Spiritual foundations of society. Introduction to Social Philosophy
fiyu // Russian abroad. From the history of social and legal thought. L., 1991.

9 Compare, for example, this interpretation of plurality: Sartre J.P. Marxism and ek
existentialism // Sartre J. P. Problems of method. M., 1994. About multiplicity
those who work within the framework of structural-functional
analysis, understood in a broad sense (see, for example: Kondratyev I. D. OS
New problems of economic statics and dynamics // Sociologos. Vol. 1M.,
1991. pp. 54-108). Here multiplicity is called “the totality of elements” and
the fundamental role of this “set of elements” for the idea itself is comprehended
social. See also: Chernov G.Yu. The problem of “mass”: analysis, contours,
approaches. Bryansk, 1997. It is necessary to pay Special attention for such a private
social science as demography. She studies the very plurality of people as
such in its dynamics and distribution in space. Therefore, in demographics
There is a socio-philosophical potential that has not yet been sufficiently revealed.

10 This definition of Hannah Arendt will be our working one in the future. Cm.:
Arendt X. The human situation // Questions of philosophy. 1998. No. 11. P. 132. Per
The prospect of human cloning raises some new possibilities for
tia of multiplicity. In fantastic form, see about this: Bujold L. M. Dance
reflections. M., 2000.

11 The fundamentality of social relations for understanding society view
already from the beginning of Aristotle’s “Politics”: “... every state represents
is a kind of communication... That communication that is the most important and
embraces all other communications... called state or communication
political" (Aristotle. Politics 1252 a // Aristotle. Op.: In 4 vols. T. 4. M
1983. P. 376). Here it should be borne in mind that for Aristotle there is no difference between
the concepts of “communication” and “relationship”, as well as what is “state” for him (or
polis) is essentially identical to our concept of society.

12 Kozhev A. Introduction to Reading Hegel. Instead of an introduction // New literature UR n°e
review. 1995. No. 13. P. 61.

13 “We will call social “attitude” the behavior of several people ~
dey, correlated in their meaning with each other and orienting towards this"
(Weber M. Basic sociological concepts // Weber M. Selected products
nia. M., 1990. P. 630).

14 The mirror metaphor is important for social philosophy, which is especially emphasized
nodded to J. Lacan.

15 The “general-specific-individual” scheme, widespread in
school philosophy, only roughly reflects the diversity of relationships before
placed in a hierarchical and network system of subordination of singularities
within one. Therefore, social reality as the being of plurality can
can be disclosed in various aspects.

16 Arendt X. The human situation. S. 13J-

17 See, for example: Philanthropy. Four Views. New Brunswick; London, 1988.

18 “Equality, unlike everything that is included in simple existence, is not
given to us, but is the result of human organization, since it guides
is governed by the principle of justice. We are not born equal; we become
equal as members of some group by virtue of our decision is mutually guaranteed
give each other equal rights. Porridge political life based on the assumption
that through organization we can create conditions of equality, since a person can
capable of acting together in a common world, changing and building it only together
with equals" (Arendt 1- The Human Condition. Chicago; London, 1958. P. 9).

19 Let us remind you sino1* 1We: tolerance, loyalty, tolerance, patience
most pluralism. In terms of practical ethics, tolerance unfolds
as a principle condescension. Fundamental idea of ​​human wisdom.
Call for mutual<~ и снисходительности встречается в самых различных мировоз­
visual systems, max > as the final wisdom it also arises in the naturalistic
vision of the world - “What should people do who poorly understand themselves and
even worse__ Fugih? The answer is simple: be lenient." (Dolnik V.R. Nepo
obedient to the biosphere. Conversations about man in the company of birds and animals. M., 1994.

20 >1we mean that the “world” is a complex developing
npou-° c socio-political relations.

-" Cm.: Krone B. Liberal concept as a concept of life // Bulletin LB"U. Ser. 7. 1997. No. 2. P. 44-53.

22 Wed. concept of "mass" in: Baudrillard J. In the shadow of the silent majority, or
The end of the social. Ekaterinburg, 2000.

23 “For the unity of the spirit, it is difference that is fundamental, moreover,
unity is nothing more than a process of differences, since indistinguishable unity is
a dead and motionless mathematical abstraction, where there is no longer life" (Krone B.
Anthology of essays on philosophy. Story. Economy. Right. Ethics. Poetry.
St. Petersburg, 1999. P. 7).

24 Greek: “struggle, competition.”

25 Among the Greeks, agon was especially strongly developed. An uncontrollable desire for love
competitions in almost all spheres of public life - a distinctive
feature of Greek life. The main role was played by sports (gymnastics),
artistic (poetic and musical) and equestrian competitions. Agonistic in
Ancient Greece was opposed to athletics (professional sports) (see:
Dictionary of Antiquity. M., 1989. P. 14).

26 The literature on socialist competition as
experience in artificially constructing an agon: Lenin V.I., Stalin I.V. About social
alistic competition. M., 1941; Krupenkin V. I. Socialist competition
innovation as a form of management of social production (theory issues):
Author's abstract. dis. ...cand. econ. Sci. JI., 1979; The creative power of socialism
sky competition. Based on materials from the All-Union Scientific and Practical Conference
tions in Leningrad (April 12-14, 1979) / Under the general. ed. E. M. Tyazhelnikova. M.,
1979; Repkova A. A. The development of socialist competition in the modern era
ne national cooperation of labor: Author's abstract. dis. ...cand. econ. Sci. M., 1979;
Stepanov V. A. Socialist competition in the system of production relations
ideas of socialism // Works of teachers of political economy of universities Povol
wow. Vol. 2. Kazan, 1968. pp. 204-210. The article by V. A. Stepanov gives an interesting

periodization of socialist competition in the USSR: 1) communist subbotniks and shock workers (physical strength plays a continuous role); 2) the Stakhanov movement (technique plays the main role); 3) movement for communist labor (competition based on science). In general, the literature on socialist competition is strictly ideological texts, where it is quite difficult to isolate the socio-philosophical content.

27 It is clear that the slave and the slave are not understood here in a concrete sociological sense.
in the Russian sense, let's say in relation to the so-called slaveholding
societies, but metaphysically, as, for example. in Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit (see:
Hegel G. W. F. Phenomenology of spirit. SPb., /992. P. 103).

28 This is how J. Rawls interprets it. Cm.." Rawls J - Theory of justice.
Novosibirsk, 1995.

29 See, for example: Egorov I. A. The principle of freedom.*""< основание general theory re
walks // Questions of philosophy. 2000. No. 3. pp. 3-21.

30 “This beginning is not the same as the beginning of the world. ■ this is the beginning of not something, but
someone who himself is nachish(p-el. With the creation of man in the MIR comes the principle itself
principle of the beginning, which, of course, is just another way of saying "b> that the principle of freedom
was created when man was created, but not before that." (Lrendt L. Situation
person. P. 137). At the same time, we must keep in mind that he did. °lness is not only
activity, but also non-action;(see research by V.B. Strich about non-duration) -

31 The separation of stimulus and reaction is prohibited, which is Funda
mental category of social philosophy (see: Dzygivsky P. " Ban how
form of social identification: Author's abstract. dis. ...cand. Philosopher Sci. St. Petersburg,
1997).

32 See: Gaidenko P.P. Why is the problem of being so relevant today?*, °D nya - //
Gaidenko P. P. Breakthrough to the transcendental: New ontology of the 20th century. S. 46с - 480. -
P. P. Gaidenko shows that utopianism begins with the rejection of evil in the world and “the end
feels like a rejection of existence itself. See also the statement about the “tragic oi tyt”
failed cultural management": Kotylev A. Yu. Metamorphoses of the game of ku^. 1b ~
transitional type round. (Based on the material of the era of formation of Soviet culturej
Russia 1917-1933: Abstract. dis. ...cand. cultural studies. St. Petersburg, 2000. P.4.

Kostomarov N. I. Russian history in the biographies of its main figures. 7th ed. T. 1. Pg., 1915. P. 12.

34 Bakhtin M. M. Toward the philosophy of action // Bakhtin M. M. Works of the 1920s. Kyiv, 1994. P. 12.

“Action, unlike production, is impossible in isolation; to be isolated is to be deprived of the ability to act. Action and speech need the surrounding presence of others no less than production needs the surrounding presence of nature because of its material and the world in which the completed product is placed. Production is surrounded by the world and is in constant contact with it: action and speech are surrounded by a network of actions and words of other people and are in constant contact with it.” (Arendt X. The human situation. P. 138). X. Arendt emphasizes the “social character” of activity as opposed to the “natural character” of production.

“Social action, like any other behavior, can be: 1) purposeful, if it is based on the expectation of a certain behavior of objects in the external world and other people and the use of this expectation as “conditions” or “means” for achieving one’s rationally set and thought-out goals; 2) value-rational, based on faith in the unconditional - aesthetic, religious or any other! about the other - self-sufficient the value of a certain behavior as such, regardless of what it leads to; 3) affective, first of all emotional, i.e. conditional! affected by the affects or emotional state of the individual; 4 ) traditional, i.e. >e. based on long-term habit" (Weber M. Basic sociological concepts. P. 628).

37 Huizinga J. Homo ludens. In the shadow of tomorrow. M., 1992. P. 12.

38 Goodwill is naturally in short supply in such eras.

39 The names we offer are arbitrary and are not generally accepted
you.

40 See, for example: Yakovlev A. Why is Russia entrusted with risk-free withdrawal from
logs? // Economic Issues. 2000. No. 11; Satuev R. S. Economic crime
ity in the financial and credit system. M., 2000; Maksimov A. A. Bandits in white
collars: how Russia was plundered. M., 1999. It is interesting to compare the total
new corruption in post-Soviet Russia and the world of inlrig at the court of Louis XVI
(cm.: For E. Opal Turgot. May 12, 1776 M., 1979).

41 Already in “Germinal” E. Zola was portrayed as an anarchist-terrorist rus
skiy by the name of Severin, blowing up a mine with workers there
only to push national) * social explosion, roar
lucia.

42 The gallery of prominent radicals can be started "with the figures of Nero's circle
and Flavian (second half of the 1st century AD). We are talking about so-called reduced senators
majority, one of which Tacitus characterized the words! whether audax, callidus, proratus
(“arrogant, hot, zealous”). Next we snatch Bakunin's stories from the darkness.
The internal closeness of the values ​​of Bakunin and Nietzsche, as well as the depths of
naya closeness between Nietzsche and the young Marx. The thesis of “the will to be in the mouth” in Nietzsche, with one
side, and the thought of the development of “all essential forces regardless of advance
to a given scale" (the famous 11th thesis on Feuerbach) in Marx, on the other hand,
internally close. In Marxism there is a strongly expressed moment of radicalism before
emerges as a doctrine of the dictatorship of the proletariat, as well as a theory of socialist
revolution. In this regard, the book by J. Duclos “Bakunin and
Marx: shadow and light." From the standpoint of Eurocommunism, it reveals radicalist
(Bakunin) and liberalist (late Marx) tendencies of the ii socialist movement
marriage of the 19th century

43 V.I. Lenin, like most leaders of the Russian revolution, remains in this
respect a mystery. No confessional texts! (T/lcher Yakovlev tried to
follow the so-called autobiography of Lenin, but almost completely without
successfully.) Apparently, the self-exposing meaning of ^/confession was understood in pain
Shevite propaganda machine, and therefore various forms of confession in
Jews were either destroyed or closed.

44 See about this: Prigomsin I., Stengers I. Time, chaos, quantum. M., 1989; Va-
silkova V.V. Order and chaos in development are social)/; systems Oinergetics and theo
riya of social self-organization. St. Petersburg, 1999. See tg/zhe sociological literature
schedule for social structure and social change; NsShr.: Schafers V.
Gesellschaftlicher Wandel in Deutschland. Ein Stundnbuch zur So^ialstruktur und
Sozialgeschichte. 6. Aufl. Stuttgart, 1995.

45 Kahn C. Anaximander and the Origins of Greek Cosmology. New York, 1960.
P. 193.

46 See: Averintsev S. S. The order of space and the order of history in the world view
Early Middle Ages // Antiquity and Byzantium. M., 1975. P. 266-2,185.

47 Toporov V.N. About the ritual. Introduction to the problem // Archai<-: ! [еский ритуал
in folklore and early literary monuments!. M., 1988. P. 7-60:

48 See the guidelines of social phenomenology: “New directions of sociologists
chesical theory. M., 1978. 1

49 See: Wagner R. Work of art of the future // Wagner ij 3. Favorites
work. M., 1978. S. 142-261. |

50 See: Losev A. F. Chaos // Myths of the peoples of the world: Encyclopedia: "\IN 2 vols. 2nd ed.
T. 2. M., 1992. P. 579-581. | !

51 See classic sociological work: Hughes E. C. Institutes //
RJ. 11.2004.01.018.

52 In this regard, it should be noted that many social projects
devices, types of social order take as a basis any one social
nal institute as base. Actually, utopias most often appear as
what kind of “mono-institutional” projects of social structure. Similar
the subordination of one social institution to another has a deforming effect
effect on the social order as a whole. The most typical samples are here on
example, theocratic society built on the type of church as a social
institute, militarized society built according to the army type, in general
society as an educational institution, society as a theater. New European civilization
is also built according to the type of another of its social institutions - factories.
Actually, an ideal society is a kind of producing organism, where the state
The donation is mainly occupied with organizing efficient production, ensuring
care of its resources, etc. The army protects this production, and culture and
religion serves the spiritual needs of consumers, thereby increasing pro
labor productivity.

53 Gefter M. Ya. Issues in the history of capitalist Russia. Sverdlovsk,
1972. pp. 83-87; see also Yashsolsky S.A. Agrarian economics, rural society
ity and problem of social and economic structures // Questions of Philosophy. 2001.
No. 12. pp. 16-27.

54 See: Novgorodtsev P. I. Moral idealism in the philosophy of law // About
problems of idealism. M., 1932. P. 296.

55 “Penetrating social existence, law informs the relations of power
tion of the features of spiritual life, communicates to the social group the features of the spiritual general
nia, spiritualizes power and personalizes members of a social group" (Hes-
Sep S.I. Selected works. M., 1999. P. 777).

56 See: Rawls J. Theory of Justice. Oxford, 1972; Rawls Doc. Theory of fairness
news

57 Ibid. P. 19. -It is necessary to mention one more concept that is outlined
reveals the ethical aspect of social order: the concept honesty."Concept
justice and honesty are one and the same” (Ibid. p. 27).

58 From recent works on the problem of social patterns, see: Quiet
new V. The future of human civilization and Russia. Patterns of development
human society. M., 1996.

59 “All deities personify the law: they are all legislators and law-givers
themselves” (Vyach. Ivanov).

60 We have seen that this kind of judgment is rooted in the very thesis about social
ity as plurality (the unity of equality and difference).

61 See works by V. Bystroe^

62 See: Pigrov K. S. Cultural space-time and three models of revival
Research of Russia // Bulletin of St. Petersburg State University. Ser.6. 1993. Vol. 4 (27).

63 See: Jaspers K. The origins of history and its purpose // Jaspers K. Meaning and purpose
stories. M., 1991. P. 32 ate.

64 See: Artndt H. On Revolution. New York, 1963. Cited. By: Trubina E. G. Eden
ity in the mis[se of plurality: insights of Hannah Arendt // Questions of Philosophy
fii. 1998. No. |1. P. 120.

65 In the recent past, we thought of only two options for modern social
al order: capitalism and socialism.

66 On the creative and ruling Minority, see: Toynbee A. Comprehension of history.
M., 1991. See also: Ilyin I. A\0 education of the national elite. M., 2001.

67 Greek, “hierarchy” - from ierol (“sacred”) and arche (“power”).

68 For Marxism, for example, the so-called basis, objective system
production relations independent of the will and consciousness of people. "Great
The historical merit of Marx and Engels was that they, from the entire
the totality of social relations that form a given society, identified from-

material possessions as the real basis, the foundation of society, and ideological relations were considered as a superstructure growing on this basis and conditioned by it” (Konstantinov F. Basis and superstructure // Philosophical Encyclopedia. T. 1. M., 1960. P. 122). J. Rawls highlights basic structure society, but his position is essentially the opposite of Marxism in terms of content. “For us, the main subject of justice is the basic structure of society, or, more precisely, the ways in which powerful social institutions distribute fundamental rights and responsibilities and determine the sharing of the benefits of social cooperation” (Rawls J. Theory of justice. P. 22). Hierarchy in the social order can also be considered as the implementation in society of the relationship between the Super-Ego, Ego and It (S. Freud): society forms a kind of supra-individual structure consisting of these three elements, where the Super-Ego always appears “on top” in the hierarchy, and It is “from below”. This It is the basic structure of society.“Super-ego,” conscience, guilt, need for punishment, repentance. They all designate different aspects of the same relationship. “Super-ego” is an instance discovered by us, and conscience is one of those attributed to the “super-ego.” "functions. Conscience supervises, judges the actions and intentions of the “I”; it acts as a censor. The feeling of guilt, the cruelty of the “Super-Ego” is, as in the case of a harsh conscience, the surveillance felt by the “I”, control over intense aspirations, the relationship between the aspirations of the “I” and the demands of the “Super-Ego”. The underlying fear of this entire relationship, the need for punishment, is a manifestation of the “I” instinct, which has become masochistic under the influence of the sadistic “Super-Ego.” In other words, the “I” uses part of its internal destructive drive to establish an erotic connection with the “Super-Ego.” (Freud 3. Dissatisfaction with culture // Freud 3. Psychoanalysis. Religion. Culture. M., 1992. P. 126).

69 See, for example: Soloviev A. A. Democracy or despotism: accident or
pattern // Philosophy and civilization. St. Petersburg, 1997. pp. 60-64.

70 The idea of ​​democracy first arose in Antiquity and was then developed
that in Christianity. Thanks to democracy, the ancient citizen felt
(almost) equal to god. In contrast to this, the dominance of society over people
century is initially justified by the dominion of God and is realized most often
under the rule of a despot representing society. In ancient Asia we observe
We believe that rulers are either gods or their descendants. An individual does not have
values. Only caste can give him a place in the universe. In Christianity
the recognition of the immortal soul of each person determines his dignity, which
is a necessary prerequisite for new European democracy. However
Now this type of democracy has largely reached a dead end. It's connected
not only with the complication of society and its “massification”, but also with the fact that
role has increased dramatically hidden in society, and at the same time the role secret
services And lies in public communications. In theory, to implement democracy
technical procedures should be literate, understanding, enlightened people, but
Education is a big problem today. Essentially enlightenment
disavowed by lies. Information that unites society is distributed throughout
means of mass communication. The media are designed in such a way that they provide all the information
clothed in entertaining form. People watch TV mainly not because
that it is “useful”, but because it is “interesting”. But precisely in this “interesting”
information is more or less imperceptibly interspersed with one or another value
installation that serves the interests of the owners of, say, a certain television
th channel. Through the media, the public is thus managed.
opinion and the results of democratic voting. Essentially this voice
it is no longer democratic. The decision that the people make in elections is
It is ultimately the decision of those who own the media.

“After all, dominion and subordination are not only necessary, but also useful, and

Right from birth, some creatures differ in the sense that some of them are, as it were, destined for subordination, others for dominion. There are many varieties of rulers and subordinates, but the higher the subordinates stand, the more perfect is the power over them; for example, power over a person is more perfect than power over an animal.” (Aristotle. Politics 1524 a 30. P. 3 82).

72 The model of the relationship between the elite and the people is the relationship between the artist and
society, artists and the public. O. Wilde was once asked what he thought about
staging a new play. “The play was brilliant, but the audience failed,” -
answered the famous paradoxist. This is precisely the expression of the cliché that
places responsibility for what is happening on the people (see: Russian literature.
1998. No. 2. P. 74).

73 This term was introduced by E. Durkheim and was used by him to
First of all, we would like to give an analysis of some “abnormal” forms of division of labor.
In general, the division of labor, according to Durkheim, should lead to increased social
order, to strengthen solidarity, the “abnormal” division of labor
undermines social order, weakens solidarity; social rules
unable to regulate the relations of social bodies.

74 Acceleration historical time is essential here; there is, as a rule,
a chain reaction where events build up like an avalanche.

75 “Eras like the one that Russia experienced (meaning the revolution
1905-1907 - K.P.), are always characterized by the concept of an explosion, and not without fundamental
vania; the collapse of foundations that yesterday still seemed strong, unexpected and often
fatal displacement of individuals and population groups, constrained by repression
social atmosphere, the turbulent course of events, the radicalism of the government,
declaring himself obligated to eliminate the state disaster; abuse,
normal under such extraordinary living conditions - everything is taken out by the state
This organism is far beyond the limits of everyday life. .. " (cm.: Obninsky V. P. New
build. Part 1: Manifesto October 17, 1905 - July 8, 1906; Part 2: Reaction. M., 1911).

76 In relation to society, collapse is a metaphor, so a belt is needed
thread of what is meant by collapse in the natural sciences. In Latin collap-
sus - “fallen”. In medicine, collapse is a life-threatening condition. It's character
is characterized by a drop in blood pressure, deterioration of blood supply to vital
important organs. Outwardly, this manifests itself as sharp weakness, sharpened features
faces, pallor, coldness in the extremities. They also talk about gravitational
lapse is a catastrophically fast compression of massive cosmic bodies (stars)
under the influence of gravitational forces. Under certain conditions, gravitational
collapse can lead to the emergence of a “black hole”.

77 See: Kotylev A. Yu. Metamorphoses of play in a transitional culture. ..

78 See: Pigrov K. S. Wrapping method and transformed forms in process
historical creativity // Materialistic teaching of K. Marx and modern times
ness. L., 1984.

79 Before us is the legacy of a powerful conservative tradition, dating back to Guo
measure and Plato through Augustine to Montaigne and Machiavelli. Already in the Iliad you
the figure of Thersites (Thersites) is introduced, essentially the image of the “first revolutionary”,
raised his voice against the kings who started the endless Trojan War and did not
thinking about the interests of ordinary soldiers. Homer uses black paint to
describe this fighter against the kings. Montaigne says: “It seems to me in the highest degree
penalize the unfair desire to subordinate established social rules
and institutions to the inconstancy of private arbitrariness... and, moreover, to undertake
against the laws of God something that no power in the world would tolerate from
wearing civil laws; (...) the most we are capable of is volume
clarify and disseminate the application of what has already been adopted, but not at all abolish it and
replace with a new one" (Montaigne M. Experiments. M., 1991. P. 98). Machiavelli echoes him:

“... you need to know that there is no business whose organization would be more difficult, its management more dangerous, and its success more doubtful than replacing old orders with new ones” (Machiavelli N. The Sovereign // Life of Niccolo Machiavelli. St. Petersburg, 1993. P. 259).

80 Neymer Yu. L. Evil // SO: Modern Society (X "arkov"). 1993. No. 1. P. 94-
108 (see: RZh. 3.96.01.018).

81 There is still a square in St. Petersburg! > Uprisings: this is evidence
indicates that the “uprising” itself appears b;as value. True, in
In the popular consciousness, this meaning has been completely erased, and it is flat; \b The uprisings are called
"Rebel."

82 The French Revolution lasted with relative interruptions from 1789 to
1871, almost 100 years old. That complex process that I began on the territory of Russia
Siysk Empire in January 1905, apparently, has not been completed to this day.

83 “The word “revolution” sounds romantic. But it is always a tragedy for the country
for millions of people, these are huge sacrifices, social...; and psychological
overload. The revolution itself is a cruel verdict on the elites of the old regime, the races
payment for their failure to implement the necessary reforms in a timely manner, ensuring
read the evolutionary development of events" (Gaidar E.T. Days of defeats and victories. M.,
1997. P. 8).

84 In the 20th century the word “revolution” becomes a journalistic ilish (“cultures
naya revolution", "sexual revolution", "scientific and technological revolution"),

85 A parallel has been repeatedly drawn between the socialist idea of ​​revolution
Lucia and the Christian idea of ​​the Last Judgment. And just like the first Christs
Some expected the end of the world literally in the coming years, while others believed
technically prepared for it, the founding fathers of socialist concepts believed
whether the world socialist revolution is about to come. So, K. Marx and
F. Engels, the revolution of 1848 in Western Europe was initially mistaken for the first races
kata of the world socialist revolution. V.I. Lesh-sh in 1913 also sex
Gal that October in Russia is the prologue to the worldwide socialist revolution.
This idea inspired the leaders of the Third International. However, what about strengthening
social institution of Christianity, the question of the timing of the Last Judgment became about
hundred “indecent”, and as socialism developed institutionally it became
“tactless” question about the specific timing of the onset of world socialism
skaya revolution.

86 See, for example: Grotius G. On the law of war and peace. M., 1956; Ilyin I. A. Spirits
the real meaning of war. M., 1915; World War in numbers. M.; L., i".931-; Lrudon P.-J.
War and Peace. A study on the principle and content of international law. M.,
1864; Freud 3. Why war? // Philosophy about the future of humanity. M., 1990.
pp. 73-84; Raushepbach B."Star Wars" and the possibility of non-Sanks
tioned nuclear conflict // World of Science. 1987. No. 2; Tiibergep Ya., Fi
sher D. War and prosperity. Security Policy Integration
into socio-economic policy. M., 1988; Urlanis B. Ts. Military history
losses. Wars and population of Europe. Human losses of the Ev armed forces
European countries in the wars of the 17th-20th centuries. (historical and statistical research).
St. Petersburg, 1994; Child J.W. Nuclear War: The Moral Dimension. New Brunswick; London,
1986.

87 See, for example: Kiselev G. S. The tragedy of society and man: an attempt to comprehend
based on the experience of Soviet history. M., 1992.

88 As for the “world catastrophe,” Elei Spain, for example, points out
three possible explanations for disasters: technocratic, spiritual and historiosophical
skoe (see: Salajchik Ya. Film script by Lev Lunts “The Revolt of Things” and the theme of the world peace
howl of catastrophe in the literature of the 20th century. // Russian literature. 1998. No. 2, pp. 137-142).

89 See, for example: Neymer Yu. L. Evil.

90 See, for example, consideration of the historiosophical theory of the “executions of God”: Mil-
to ov V.V. Understanding history in Ancient Rus'. M., 1997.

91 See, for example: Jaspers K. Die Schuldfrage. Von der politischen Haftung Deutsch-
lands. Miinchen, 1965.

92 Goldstein A.P. The Psychology of Vandalism. New York; London, 1996.

93 When discussing this topic, it is necessary to keep in mind the work of X. Arendt “Eichmann in
Jerusalem: Banalities of Evil" (Arendt H. Eichmann in Jerusalem: The Banality of
Evil. New York, 1963).

94 The case took place in the auditorium of the Faculty of Sociology of St. Petersburg State University in 1995.

95 Tolstoy L. N. Poly. collection cit.: In 100 volumes. T. 53. M., 1953. P. 7.

96 “Experiments have been undertaken in which experimental animals with
kept in an overcrowded environment without any other additional hardships.
These experiments showed that animals under such conditions experience increased
reading of the adrenal glands. The result of an overcrowded environment is also
childhood illnesses. .. Some animals react to overcrowding not only
extinction. .. During months of overcrowding, lemmings become very nervous.
They scurry around like crazy... During overpopulation, huge herds of lemmin
Govs rush to the sea coast. Being good swimmers, they
they fearfully enter the water, apparently mistaking the sea for a wide river, and, of course,
drowning... All you had to do was increase the number of lemmings in the vivarium by several
to animals or even to one, as for most of them life became
unbearable. Instead of starting friendly fights, they became
on their hind legs and tried to grab the enemy by the throat with their bared teeth
fangs... Other animals. ..have other ways to deal with overpopulation
stu. If they find that their habitat has become too crowded, they
dramatically change their “social relationships.” They create order, foundations
based on the principle of dominance, which in new biological terminology
called prostasia (translated from Greek as “standing in front”). This is common
social order is accompanied by aggressiveness, and although it does not lead to mass
bloodshed, but leads to massive misunderstandings. .. As soon as living in
In crowded conditions, animals begin to get on each other's nerves, they create a certain
line hierarchies" (Carriger S. Wild heritage of nature. M., 1969. S. 149-152).

97 See: Hobbes T. Selected works: In 2 volumes. T. 2. M., 1964. P. 152-153.

98 Hegel. Philosophy of law // Hegel. Collection cit.: [In 14 vols.]. T. 7. M.; L., 1934.
pp. 34-35. For analytical analysis see: Legova E. S. Hegel on the origins of evil will //
Questions of philosophy. 1996. No. 11. pp. 32-42.

99 “We are threatened with suffering from three sides: from our own
body condemned to decline and decay, warning signals to
which are pain and fear, we also cannot do without them. From the outside
world, which can violently bring down on us its huge, inexorable and
destructive forces. And finally, from our relationships with other people.
Suffering... from the latter source is probably perceived as painful by us
than everyone else; we tend to consider them some kind of excess, although they are neither
almost no less inevitable and inescapable than suffering of a different origin.”
(Freud 3. Dissatisfaction with culture. P. 77).

Cm.: Lindblad Ya. Man - you, me, the primordial. M., 1991. P. 58.

101 Akhiezer A. S. On the features of modern philosophizing. (Sight
from Russia) // Questions of Philosophy. 1998. No. 2. S.Z.

102 Ibid.

103 “... Every... titan personality in his unbridled self-affirmation wants
decisively conquer everything in your path. But such a titan personality exists
not just one, there are a lot of them, and they all want their absolute self-affirmation,
i.e. they all want to subjugate other people to themselves, over them is unlimited
dominate and even destroy them. From here arises conflict and struggle of one
a titan personality with another titan personality, a fight not to the stomach, but to the death. All
this kind of titans die in mutual struggle as a result of mutual exclusion

each other from the circle of people who have the right to independent existence" (Losev A.F. Renaissance aesthetics. M., 1982. P. 61).

104 Didenko B. A. Predatory power: zoopsychology of the powerful (Philosopher)
sko-journalistic essays devoted to the problem of evil generated by those in power
structures). M., 1997.

105 See: Stirner M. The only one and his property. M., 1906; Proudhon P.-J.
What is property? M., 1998; Bakunin M. God and the state. M.; Pg., 1918;
and etc.

106 Let's say, the concentration of evil - leadership of modern Russia:“Nowadays
The Russian leadership is a cancer for Russia. It doesn't give back
realizes that it will die along with the huge body to which it is attached.
Without even noticing that it was what killed him.” (Chiesa J. Goodbye Russia. M.,
1997. P. 79). A. Solzhenitsyn develops this theme even more expressively: “Av 19-21
August 1991 could have become a high point in the history of Russia. The events bore the features
real revolution: mass inspiration, not only of the public, but in
to a large extent and the people of the capital... Free expressions of the street crowd.
The feeling of a great revolution taking place until the hot choke. .. Head-
whether the coup had a glorious opportunity with several energetic measures in
radically change both the entire situation inside Russia and the external conditions of its being
vanity in the immediately heard clash of sovereignties of the Union republics... Nothing
this or anything similar was not done. The leaders of the coup in the short days of deception
zeros, betrayed the hopes of the applauding masses. These leaders, and those who joined
activists, - the first and brightest step of the democratic victory was the election of
shortage of premises, offices in the Kremlin and on Old Square, cars, then and
private apartments. This is what they did on the most pivotal days, when fate
Russia could be molded like warm wax. The victorious one hastily rallied
The rising elite, having entered into another fatal act in the History of Russia, it turns out,
I thought only about the power that had fallen into the hands of an unexpected gift, about nothing else
homo" (Solzhenitsyn A. Russia is in collapse. M., 1998. pp. 13-14). It is clear that the same
both the leadership of the USSR and the leadership of
USA (“imperialist circles”), and any other leadership.

107 Philosophy of history, insofar as it can be distinguished from social
philosophy, unfolds primarily in social time. In this from
wearing a philosophy of history is a philosophy of social time. Multiple
ity here is not extensive, but intensive. The philosophy of history thoughtfully explores,
as one episode, one event, one time, one period, one era are replaced
other episode, event, time, period, era. However, it is necessary
remember about unity two forms of existence.

108 See: Bakhtin M. M. Forms of time and chronotope in the novel. Essays on IS
toric poetics // Bakhtin M.M. Literary critical articles. M., 1986.
See also: Auerbach E. Mimesis. Portrayal of reality in Western Euro
Pei literature. . M.; St. Petersburg, 2000 (especially chapters I and III, dedicated to
Homeric and biblical vision of space-time).

This dichotomy is revealed in: Morozov K. E. The problem of space-time // Philosophy of Natural Science. M., 1966.

This position can be reconstructed from Democritus: “... in reality, only atoms and emptiness exist” (Makovelsky A. O. Ancient Greek atomists. Baku, 1946. P. 224). Let us note that time is not mentioned at all, and space is expressed here as “emptiness”. This is how the reduction of space to a container (emptiness) and the reduction of being to its spatial form occur.

Cm.: Newton I. Mathematical principles of natural philosophy // Collected works of academician A.N. Krylov: [In 12 volumes]. T. 7. M.; L., 1936. P. 30. 2 Controversy between G. Leibniz and S. Clark. L., 1960. P. 84.

113 “... Space. .. of course, does not depend on one or another position of the bodies,
nevertheless, it is the order that makes race itself possible.
position of bodies and by virtue of which they exist next to each other
have a relation of location, just as time is
the same order in the sense of the sequence of their existence” (Ibid. p. 58).

114 About how life creates its own space-time in the concept
tions of V.I. Vernadsky, see: Aksenov G. P. About Vernadsky’s scientific loneliness //
Questions of philosophy. 1993. No. 6. pp. 74-87.

115 B. Pascal vividly described this Abyss, emphasizing the disproportion of the human
century and the world: “Let man consider all nature in its lofty and complete
greatness; let him shift his gaze from the lower objects surrounding him to that
this brilliant luminary, which, like an eternal lamp, illuminates the Universe.
The earth will then seem to him like a point in comparison with an immense circle, describing
we wash with this luminary; let him marvel at the fact that this immense circle in its
the queue is no more than a very small point in comparison with the path that describes
there are stars in the celestial space. But when his gaze stops on this edge,
let the imagination go further: it will sooner become tired than nature will be exhausted. ..
This entire visible world is just an imperceptible feature in the vast bosom of nature.
No thought will embrace her" (Pascal B. Thoughts. M., 1994. pp. 63-64).

116 Quoted. in: Questions of Philosophy. 1993. No. 2. P. 15. - Russians who composed
represent 3% of the Earth's population, today they own 13% of the land, where 35% are concentrated
of the world's energy and biological resources and more than half of the military
tegical raw materials. For every resident of our country there are 11.7 conventional
resource unit, per US resident - 2 units, per resident of Western Europe -
0.67 units. In terms of resources, each of us is six times richer than an American.

117 See, for example: Kolosov V. A., Borodulina N. A. Electoral preferences
voters of large Russian cities: types and stability // Polis. 2004. No. 4.
pp. 70-79. - In modern Russia, large cities are increasingly choosing the right, de
jealousy - left.

118 See research by L.V. Shipovalova.

119 Islamic esotericists call the Iron Age “the great concealment”
(“gauge”) (see: Dugin A. What is it like, the future?.. // Science and religion. 1996. No. 11.
pp. 2-3).

120 Condorcet J. A. Sketch of a historical picture of the progress of the human race
Zuma. M., 1936.

121 G. Ford's formula I: “everything can be done better.”

122 See: Gaidar E. T. Days of defeats and victories.

123 See: Pigrov K. S. Innovation as a reality of our time // West
nickname of St. Petersburg State University. Ser. 6. 2000. Issue. 1. pp. 4-12.

124 Husserl E. Collection Op. T. I: Phenomenology of internal consciousness of time.
M., 1994.

125 Ibid. S. 36, 39 ate.

126 “Everything cosmic bears the stamp of periodicity. He has tact.
Everything microcosmic is polar. His essence is entirely expressed in the word “against”
(gegen). In the microcosmic there is voltage... Any state of wakefulness
knowledge is, in essence, a tension: “feeling” and “object”, “I” and
“you”, “cause” and “effect”, “thing” and “property” - all this is split and tense
wife, and where detente occurs (here is a word full of deep meaning!), there
the fatigue of the microcosmic side of life immediately makes itself felt, and in
Eventually sleep sets in" (Spengler O. The decline of Europe. Essays on morphology
world history. T. 2. P. 6-7).

127 See, for example: Krone B. Anthology of essays on philosophy. .. P. 10.

128 Let us recall that sleep literally appears as a periodic psi
chemical condition characterized by immobility And disconnection

The concepts of time and space are among the most complex philosophical categories. Throughout the history of philosophy, views on space and time have changed several times. If at the time of I. Newton the substantial concept of space and time dominated, then from the beginning of the twentieth century, namely after A. Einstein created first the special and then the general theories of relativity, the relational concept has been established in science, as well as in philosophy. Within the framework of this concept, time is considered in unity with space and movement, as one of the coordinates of the space-time continuum. The Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary (Moscow, 2003) gives the following definition of time: time is a form of emergence, formation, flow, destruction in the world, as well as itself, along with everything that relates to it. There are two types of time: objective time and subjective time. Objective time- this is time measured by segments of the path of celestial bodies. It must be distinguished from subjective, which is based on the awareness of time. The latter depends on the content of a person’s experiences and is mainly the ability to do and perceive something. It is the concept of subjective time that is closely connected with such philosophical categories as life, meaning, etc.

According to the great German philosopher, representative of existentialism M. Heidegger, who wrote the work “Being and Time,” time is neither in the subject nor in the object, neither “inside” nor “outside.” It “is” before any subjectivity and objectivity, for it is the condition of the very possibility for this “before”, for this being (including human existence). Time plays an important role as a way of human existence, in which he must necessarily experience the past, present and future, therefore time can be considered as an unconditional prerequisite for human existence. According to I. Kant, time is a formal a priori condition of all phenomena in general.

There is another specific approach to solving the problem of time, within which the concept of “historical time” is highlighted. The era of so-called “historical time” covers approximately 6 thousand years, prehistoric time - several hundred thousand years, geological time - several billion years, cosmic time - infinite. If we assume that man has existed on Earth for about 550 thousand years, and put these 550 thousand equal to one twenty-four hour day, then 6 thousand years of historical time, that is, the entire “world history”, will amount to only 16 last minutes of life during this day.

In the same Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary space defined as that which is common to all experiences arising through the senses. I. Kant in his work “Critique of Pure Reason” analyzed space as the form of all phenomena of the external sense organs, that is, as a formal property of any perception of the external world, thanks to which only our external visual representations are possible. He proved the empirical reality of space, that is, its a priori nature in relation to experience, and at the same time its transcendental ideality. The modern theory of relativity denies the concreteness of space, thereby “it is not created from the world, but only then is it retroactively introduced into the metric of the four-dimensional manifold, which arises due to the fact that space and time are connected into a single (four-dimensional) continuum through the speed of light” ( M. Plank. Vom Relativen zum Absoluten, 1925).

In classical science, formed under the influence of the ideas of R. Descartes and I. Newton, timelessness and ahistoricity were accepted as conditions of truth. However, this situation no longer suited scientists of the non-classical period. A rethinking of the concepts of time and space was required not only in natural science, but also within the framework of the emerging social and humanitarian knowledge, new approaches to solving the problem of space and time arose, which took into account the specifics of the subject of the social and human sciences.

The great Russian scientist M. M. Bakhtin proposed his approach to solving this problem. He argued that in humanitarian knowledge, knowledge of the world should not be built in abstraction from man, as is done in the theorized world of natural scientific rationalism, but on the basis of trust in an integral subject - the person who knows. Then cognition turns into an act of a responsible thinking consciousness and appears as an interested understanding. Hence the special structure of the cognitive act in social and humanitarian knowledge, which presupposes temporal, spatial and semantic extraneousness. That is, the traditional binary relationship subject - object of knowledge becomes at least ternary: the subject relates to the object through a system of value or communicative relations, and he himself appears in the duality of me and the other, the author and the hero.

M. M. Bakhtin identifies text analysis as the basis of humanitarian knowledge. For him, the text is the primary reality and the starting point of any humanitarian discipline. It concentrates all the features of humanitarian knowledge and cognitive activity - its communicative, semantic and value-laden nature. The most important form of text analysis is the identification of value and worldview prerequisites for humanitarian knowledge, especially those hidden in the content of the text.

It is necessary to take into account both the attribute of the text and its dialogical nature, the communicative nature. As a result of cognitive activity, the text simultaneously synthesizes different levels and forms of displaying reality:

2) display of the philosophical, aesthetic and other values ​​of the author and, through them, the mentality of the era;

3) the presence of two consciousnesses in the dialogue of the text, the objective possibility of its interpretation by another consciousness, another culture.

Identification of the hidden content of texts does not have the nature of logical consequence; it is based on guesses, hypotheses, and requires direct or indirect evidence of the legitimacy of the identified premises.

Another feature of the text: a researcher belonging to another culture can identify hidden meanings that objectively existed, but were inaccessible to people who grew up in that culture.

Thus, the text has objective properties that ensure its real existence and transmission in culture, not only in its direct function as a carrier of information, but also as a cultural phenomenon, its humanistic parameters that exist in implicit form and act as prerequisites for various reconstructions and interpretations. Interpretation of the text by representatives of another culture is significantly complicated. Intercultural lacunae, gaps, and inconsistencies may arise. Philosophical and methodological analysis of the problems and features of humanistic texts allows us to identify techniques and methods for solving the fundamental task of humanitarian knowledge - a theoretical reconstruction of the subject behind the knowledge, a socio-historical interpretation of the culture that gave birth to such a subject.

M. M. Bakhtin’s new approach to the concepts of space and time in humanitarian knowledge connects the active cognizing consciousness and all conceivable spatial and temporal relations into a single center - an “architectonic whole.” At the same time, an emotional-volitional concrete diversity of the world appears, in which spatial and temporal moments determine my truly unique place and the actual unique historical day and hour of accomplishment. These ideas are close to philosophical hermeneutics, within which time is also conceptualized in different ways, on the one hand, as the role of temporal distance between the author and the interpreter, on the other, as a parameter of historical reason, etc.

This “architectonic whole” finds its expression in the concept of chronotope, which is developed by M. M. Bakhtin. Chronotope there is a specific unity of spatio-temporal characteristics for a specific situation. This is the unity of spatial and temporal parameters aimed at determining meaning. The term chronotope was first used in psychology by the Russian scientist A. A. Ukhtomsky. It became widespread in literary criticism, and then in other social sciences and humanities thanks to the works of M. M. Bakhtin.

Chronotope (from the Greek chronos - time and topos - place) is an image (reflection) of time and space in a work of art in their unity, interconnection and mutual influence. It reproduces the spatio-temporal picture of the world and organizes the composition of the work, but at the same time it does not directly, directly display time and space, but draws their conventional image, therefore, in a work of art, artistic time and artistic space are not identical to real ones, these are precisely images of time and space with its characteristics and characteristics. For example, time in a literary work can be either correlated or not correlated with the historical, can be continuous (linearly unfolding) or have temporary rearrangements, can be deliberately slowed down by the author or reduced to a stage direction. It can occur in parallel in different plot lines of the work (for example, Tolstoy’s technique of depicting simultaneous action in different points of space in the novel “War and Peace”). The artistic space created by the writer is a certain model, a picture of the world in which the action takes place. Space can be wide or narrow, open or closed, real (as in a chronicle) or fictional (as in a fairy tale, in a work of fiction). Various components of the chronotope in works can often have a symbolic meaning.

In addition, according to M.M. Bakhtin, the genre specificity of a work is determined, first of all, by the chronotope (for example, historical or fantastic time and space in a ballad, epic time in works of epic genres, subjectively reflected time and space in lyrical works, etc.). According to Bakhtin, the axiological orientation of space-time unity is the main one, since the main function of a work of art is to express a personal position and meaning. Therefore, entry into the sphere of meaning occurs only through the gates of the chronotope. In other words, the meanings contained in a work can be objectified only through their spatio-temporal expression. Moreover, both the author, the work itself, and the reader (listener, viewer) who perceive it have their own chronotopes (and the meanings they reveal). Thus, the dialogical nature of existence is manifested.

M. M. Bakhtin filled this concept with cultural, historical, value meaning. For him, space and time are necessary forms of all knowledge, including humanitarian knowledge. These are forms of reality itself. In the “artistic chronotope” time thickens, becomes denser, becomes artistically visible; space is intensified, drawn into the movement of time, plot, history. Signs of time are revealed in space, and space is comprehended and measured by time. Therefore, it becomes possible to transform the chronotope into a universal, fundamental category, which can become one of the fundamentally new foundations of epistemology, which has not yet fully mastered and even avoids specific spatio-temporal characteristics of knowledge and cognitive activity.

Description of time and space in social and humanitarian knowledge differs significantly from their representation in natural science. The main features are that the development of knowledge in the sciences of spirit and culture already has as an implicit basic prerequisite a certain picture of the world, including natural scientific ideas about space and time. Without addressing them directly and not always being aware of their implicit presence, humanities scholars create their texts based on these premises. At the same time, these texts form or apply ideas about space and time that characterize society, culture, history, and the spiritual world of man, which do not have a physical or biological nature. This is the socio-historical time and space of human existence and the existence of human culture.

Consideration of the problem of time in the humanities can rely on the most important ideas of philosophers who thought about the nature of time and space. From Kant's concept of time follow two ideas that are important for clarifying both the forms of the presence of time in cognition, on the one hand, and the ways of knowing time itself, on the other. The first is the idea of ​​a priori ( Apriori- before experience) time as a necessary representation underlying all knowledge as its “general condition of possibility.” It is represented by axioms, the main ones of which are the following; time has only one dimension; different times do not exist together, but sequentially. These principles have the meaning of rules according to which experience is generally possible as a consequence of sensory intuition; they instruct us before experience, and not through experience; as a priori knowledge, they are necessary and strictly universal.

The second important idea that follows from Kant’s understanding of time is seeing it as “a form of inner feeling, i.e. contemplation of ourselves and our internal state” as “the immediate condition of internal phenomena (our soul)”, which determines the relationship of ideas in our internal state.

The French thinker A. Bergson developed the concept of time as duration. As duration, time appears indivisible and integral, presupposing the penetration of the past and present, creativity (creation) of new forms, their development. Bergson's introduction of the concept of duration indicates a certain philosophical reorientation associated with the formation of the historical self-awareness of science, with the study of the methodology of historical knowledge, and attempts to describe reality itself as historical. This approach is central to phenomenology.

So, the phenomenological method of analyzing time is the exclusion of objective time and the consideration of the internal consciousness of time at two levels of grasping duration and sequence - the level of awareness of time and the level of temporality of consciousness itself. Phenomenological ideas significantly change traditional, often simplified, naive-realistic ideas about time, overcoming which serves as a condition for understanding the specifics of time in the sphere of “spirit,” society and culture.

Based on the ideas of leading philosophical teachings about time, we turn to specific areas of social and humanitarian knowledge to consider the experience of understanding time and ways of representing it in this area.

The problem of time in humanities is fundamental; to one degree or another, it has been studied for a long time, but rather empirically, descriptively, rather than conceptually. The problem of social time, the specifics of historical time, the nature of time in various social and human sciences - these are the most common areas of research, i.e. the very passage of time creates change. This approach corresponds to the distinction between “astronomical” and “social” time carried out quite a long time ago by P. Sorokin and R. Merton, which remained unattended for a long time, although in parallel, for example, in economic literature, a distinction was also made between two types of time - time as a “scheme of thinking” and time as the “engine of experience.” In historical research, both types of time are present, although in “different proportions,” which also depends on whether we are talking about the time of the observing or the acting subject. Knowledge of historical time occurs in the “space of social sciences,” in particular political science, economics, sociology and psychology.

A special topic, to which so far undeservedly few works have been devoted, is the introduction of the time factor into literary texts, clarification of its role, image and modes of presence, reversibility, changes in flow rate and many other properties that are not inherent in real physical time, but are significant in art and culture generally. So, M.M. Bakhtin connects consciousness and “all conceivable spatial and temporal relations” into a single center. Rethinking the categories of space and time in a humanitarian context, he introduced the concept of chronotope as a specific unity of spatio-temporal characteristics for a specific situation. Bakhtin left a kind of model for the analysis of temporal and spatial relations and ways of “introducing” them into literary and literary texts. Taking the term “chronotope” from the natural science texts of A.A. Ukhtomsky, Bakhtin did not limit himself to the naturalistic idea of ​​the chronotope as a physical unity, the integrity of time and space, but filled it with humanistic, cultural, historical and value meanings. He seeks to reveal the role of these forms in the process of artistic cognition, “artistic vision.” Also justifying the need for a single term, Bakhtin explains that in the “artistic chronotope” there is “an intersection of rows and a merging of signs” - “time here thickens, becomes denser, becomes artistically visible; space is intensified, drawn into the movement of time, plot, history. Signs of time are revealed in space, and space is comprehended and measured by time.”

In general, reflections on Bakhtin’s texts on the forms of time and space in artistic and humanitarian texts lead to the idea of ​​​​the possibility of transforming the chronotope into a universal, fundamental category, which can become one of the fundamentally new foundations of epistemology, which has not yet been fully mastered and even avoided specific spatiotemporal characteristics of knowledge and cognitive activity.