Features of Egyptian mythology

The sources for studying the mythology of Ancient Egypt are characterized by incomplete and unsystematic presentation. The nature and origin of many myths are reconstructed on the basis of later texts. The main monuments that reflected the mythological ideas of the Egyptians are various religious texts: hymns and prayers to the gods, records of funeral rites on the walls of tombs. The most significant of them are the “Pyramid Texts” - the oldest texts of funeral royal rituals, carved on the walls of the interior of the pyramids of the pharaohs of the V and VI dynasties of the Old Kingdom (26 - 23 centuries BC); “Texts of sarcophagi”, preserved on sarcophagi from the Middle Kingdom era (21st - 18th centuries BC), “Book of the Dead” - compiled from the period of the New Kingdom to the end of Ancient Egypt, collections of funeral texts. Mythological ideas are also reflected in such texts as “The Book of the Cow”, “The Book of Vigil Hours”, “Books about the Underworld”, “The Book of Breathing”, “Amduat” and others. Significant material is provided by recordings of dramatic mysteries that were performed during religious holidays and coronation celebrations of the pharaohs by priests, and in some cases by the pharaoh himself, who delivered recorded speeches on behalf of the gods. Of great interest are magical texts, conspiracies and spells, which are often based on episodes from legends about the gods, inscriptions on statues, steles (stone, marble, granite or wooden slab (or pillar) with texts or images carved on it. Installed as funeral or memorial sign), etc., iconographic material. The source of information about Egyptian mythology is also the works of ancient authors: Herodotus, who visited Egypt in the 5th century. BC, Plutarch (1st - 2nd centuries AD), who left a detailed work “On Isis and Osiris”, and more.

Egyptian mythology began to take shape in 6 - 4 thousand BC, long before the emergence of class society. Each region (nome) develops its own pantheon (temple or place dedicated to all gods) and the cult of gods embodied in heavenly bodies, stones, trees, animals, birds, snakes, etc. The nome itself is also personified in the image of a special deity: for example, the goddess of the Hermopolis nome was considered Unut, who was revered in the form of a hare. Later, local deities were usually grouped in the form of a triad led by the demiurge god, the patron of nome, around whom cycles of mythological legends were created (for example, the Theban triad - the sun god Amon, his wife Mut - the goddess of the sky, their son Khonsu - the god of the moon; the Memphis triad - Ptah, his wife Sekhmet is the goddess of war, their son Nemfertum is the god of vegetation, etc.). Female deities, as a rule, had the functions of a mother goddess (especially Mut, Isis). The firmament was usually represented in the form of a cow with a body covered with stars, but sometimes it was personified in the image of a woman - the goddess Nut, who, bent in an arc, touches the ground with the ends of her fingers and toes. There were ideas according to which the sky is a water surface, the heavenly Nile, along which the sun flows around the earth during the day. There is also a Nile underground, along which the sun, having descended below the horizon, floats at night. The embodiment of the earth in some nomes was the god Geb, in others - Aker. The Nile, which flowed on earth, was personified in the image of the god Hapi, who contributed to the harvest with his beneficial floods. The Nile itself was also inhabited by good and evil deities in the form of animals: crocodiles, hippos, frogs, scorpions, snakes, etc. The fertility of the fields was controlled by the goddess - the mistress of bins and barns, Renenutet, who was revered in the form of a snake that appears on the field during the harvest, monitoring the thoroughness of the harvest. The grape harvest depended on the vine god Shai.

(Myths are a work of popular imagination that naively explains the facts of the real world. They are born from the natural curiosity of humanity, based on early stages its development based on work experience; As this experience expands, along with the growth of material production, the circle of mythological fantasy expands and its content becomes more complex. Having different roots, mythology and religion have something in common - personifying fantasy. It is this that already in the early stages of development contributes to the inclusion of mythological ideas in the field of religion.)

Ideas about afterlife as a direct continuation of the earthly, but only in the grave. Its necessary conditions are the preservation of the body of the deceased (hence the custom of mummifying corpses), the provision of housing for him (tomb), food (mortuary gifts and sacrifices brought by the living). Later, ideas arise that the dead (i.e., their ba, soul) come out into the sunlight during the day, fly up to heaven to the gods, and wander through the underworld (duat). The essence of man was thought of in the inextricable unity of his body, souls (there were believed to be several of them: ka, ba; Russian word"soul", however, is not an exact correspondence to the Egyptian concept), name, shadow. A soul wandering through the underworld is in wait for all sorts of monsters, from which you can escape with the help of special spells and prayers. Osiris, together with other gods, administers the afterlife judgment over the deceased (Chapter 125 of the Book of the Dead is specially dedicated to him). In the face of Osiris, psychostasia occurs: the weighing of the heart of the deceased on scales balanced by truth (the image of the goddess Maat or her symbol). The sinner was devoured by the terrible animal Amt (a lion with the head of a crocodile), the righteous man came to life for happy life in the fields of Iaru. Acquitted at the trial of Osiris, according to the so-called “Negative Confession” contained in chapter 125 of the “Book of the Dead” (a list of sins that the deceased did not commit), only one who was submissive and patient in earthly life, one who did not steal, did not encroach on temple property, did not rebel, did not speak evil against the king, etc., and also “pure in heart” (“I am pure, pure, pure,” the deceased claims at the trial).

The most characteristic feature of Egyptian mythology is the deification of animals, which arose in ancient times and especially intensified in the later periods of Egyptian history. Deities embodied in animals were initially generally considered patrons of hunting; with the domestication of animals, some became deities of pastoralists. The most revered animals - incarnations of various deities included the bull (Apis, Mnevis, Buhis, Bata) and cow (Hathor, Isis), ram (Amon and Khnum), snake, crocodile (Sebek), cat (Bast), lion (incarnation many gods: Tefnut, Sekhmet, Hathor, etc.), jackal (Anubis), falcon (Horus), ibis (Thoth; the arrival of the ibis-Thoth in Egypt was associated with the floods of the Nile), etc. Later, the pantheon was anthropomorphized, but zoomorphic features in the appearance of deities were not completely supplanted and were usually combined with anthropomorphic ones. For example, Bast was depicted as a woman with a cat's head, Thoth as a man with the head of an ibis, etc.

Gods in the forms of bulls and cows were revered in many nomes. One demotic papyrus records the myth that at first all the gods and goddesses were bulls and cows with wool of different colors. Then, by order of the supreme god, all the bulls were incarnated into one black bull, and all the cows - into one black cow. The cult of the bull, which in ancient times was probably associated with the veneration of the tribal leader, with the emergence of the ancient Egyptian state, began to move closer to the cult of the pharaoh. In early texts the king was called a "calf". In Memphis, and then throughout Egypt, a black bull with white markings was considered the incarnation of the god Apis. Both good and evil deities were embodied in the form of snakes. The head of all the enemies of the sun, Ra, was considered the huge serpent Apep, personifying darkness and evil. At the same time, the goddess of fertility Renutet was revered in the form of a snake, the goddess - the guardian of the cemeteries of Meritseger, Isis and Nephthys - the protectors of Osiris and, therefore, any deceased, the goddess Uto - the patroness of Lower Egypt, the guardian of Ra and the pharaoh.

With the development of the ancient Egyptian state, mythological ideas changed. The cults of numerous local deities retained their importance, but the veneration of some of them spread beyond the boundaries of individual nomes and even acquired general Egyptian significance.

The most significant cycles of myths of Ancient Egypt are the myths about the creation of the world, about the solar deities and about Osiris. Initially, it was believed that the world was chaos, a primordial abyss of water - Nun. Out of the chaos came the gods who created the earth, sky, people, animals and plants. The first god was the sun, usually acting as a demiurge (originally the name of the class of artisans in ancient Greek society). One of the myths says that a hill emerged from the waters, on which a lotus flower blossomed, and from there a child (the sun - Ra) appeared, “illuminating the earth, which was in darkness. In other myths, the appearance of the sun is associated with an egg laid on the one that rose from chaos hill with the bird "Great Gogotun". There was a myth according to which the sun was born in the form of a calf by a huge cow - the sky. Along with this, there were ideas about the goddess of the sky - a woman who gives birth to the sun in the morning, swallows it in the evening - as a result, night comes - and the next morning. gives birth to him again. In some myths, the ancestors are male deities. In the Heliopolitan myth, the god Atum, identified with the sun - Ra, who emerged from chaos - Nuna, impregnated himself by swallowing his own seed, and gave birth, spitting out of his mouth, the first gods: a pair of Shu. and Tefnut (the god of air and the goddess of moisture). They, in turn, produced a second pair: the god of the earth Heb and the goddess of the sky Nut, who gave birth to Isis and Nephthys, Osiris and Seth. These gods make up the famous Heliopolitan “nine” - the Ennead, revered in ancient times. throughout Egypt and was invariably present in religious texts. The gods of the Ennead were considered the first kings of Egypt. In the Memphis myth of the creation of the world, dating back to the Old Kingdom, the local god Ptah is the demiurge. Unlike Atum, Ptah, who created the first eight gods, first conceived creation in his heart (the heart is the “seat of thought”) and named their names with his tongue (Ptah created with “tongue and heart,” i.e., thought and word). In the same way, he created the whole world: earth and sky, people, animals, plants, cities, temples, crafts and arts, and established the cults of the gods. In this myth, Ptah is endowed with all the attributes of a king. During the period of the New Kingdom with the rise of the XVIII (Theban) dynasty (16th - 14th centuries BC), the Theban god Amun, identified with Ratheban, who is called the king of all gods, was established as the demiurge. The pharaoh, called his son, is identified with Amon. Characteristic of the developed Egyptian society is another myth, sanctifying the divinely approved power of the king, which is given in a political treatise - the teaching of the Heracleopolitan king Akhtoy to his son Merikara (X Dynasty, 22nd century. BC.). It says that people - the “flock of God” - originated from the body of the creator god (whose name is not mentioned) as his exact likeness. For them, he created heaven and earth out of chaos, air for breathing, animals, birds and fish for food. According to other myths (apparently later), people arose from the tears of Ra or were sculpted on a potter's wheel by Khnum (a creator god who sculpts a man from clay on a pottery disk, the guardian of the Nile; a man with the head of a ram with spirally twisted horns).

The myths about the solar gods are closely related to the myths about the creation of the world. Solar myths (mythologization of the Sun and its impact on earthly life; usually closely related to lunar myths) reflect two groups of ideas: about the change of seasons (more ancient) and about the struggle of the sun with darkness and evil, personified in the images of monsters and various terrible animals, especially snakes. With the end of bringing drought sultry wind the Khamsin desert and the revitalization of vegetation are associated with the myth of return sun's eye- Ra's daughter Tefnut. Tefnut (sometimes also called Hathor), having quarreled with Ra, who reigned in Egypt, in the form of a lioness retired to Nubia, to the region of Bugem (apparently, in the minds of the Egyptians, her departure caused the onset of drought). In order for her to return to Egypt, Ra sends Shu and Thoth, who have taken the form of baboons, for her to Nubia. They must return Tefnut to her father by luring her with singing and dancing. In an earlier version of the myth, she is lured to Egypt by the hunting god Onuris. Returning, Tefnut marries his brother Shu, which foreshadows the birth of new rich fruits by nature. The holiday of the return of Ra's beloved daughter was also celebrated during the historical period. In Egyptian calendars it was called "the day of the vine and the fullness of the Nile." The population of Egypt greeted the goddess with songs and dances.

At the hottest time of the year, the sun was believed to burn with anger at people. Associated with this idea is the myth of the punishment of people for their sins by order of Ra. When Ra grew old (“his bones were made of silver, his flesh was made of gold, his hair was made of pure lapis lazuli”), people ceased to revere the god-king and even “plotted evil deeds against him.” Then Ra gathered a council of gods led by the progenitor Nun (or Atum), at which it was decided to punish the people. They were let loose on them sunny eye, beloved daughter of Ra, called Sekhmet or Hathor in myth. The goddess in the form of a lioness began to kill and devour people, their destruction took such proportions that Ra decided to stop her. However, the goddess, enraged by the taste of blood, did not calm down. Then they cunningly gave her red beer, and she, drunk, fell asleep and forgot about revenge. Ra, having proclaimed Hebe to his deputies on earth, climbed onto the back of a heavenly cow and from there continued to rule the world.

A myth is associated with the period when the heat of the sun weakens, in which Ra is bitten by a snake sent by Isis, who wanted to know his secret name (the Egyptians believed that knowledge of the name gives power over its bearer). Only Isis, “great of enchantment,” “mistress of sorcery,” who knows a conspiracy against a snake bite, can heal Ra. As a reward, she demands that Ra tell her his secret name. Ra fulfills the condition, and Isis heals him.

The struggle of the sun with the forces of darkness is reflected in many myths. One of the most terrible enemies of Ra is the ruler of the underworld, the huge serpent Apep. The myth tells that during the day, Ra sails, illuminating the earth, along the heavenly Nile in the barge Manjet, in the evening he swims up to the gates of the underworld, and, having boarded the night barge Mesektet, sails with his retinue along the underground Nile. However, Apep, wanting to prevent Ra's voyage and destroy him, drinks the water of the Nile. A struggle begins between Ra and his entourage and Apep, the victory of which invariably remains with Ra: Apep has to vomit the water back. Ra continues on his way so that in the morning he will again appear on the heavenly Nile. There was also a myth according to which Ra the sun, in the form of a red cat, under the sacred sycamore tree of the city of Heliopolis, defeated a huge serpent (Apopos) and cut off his head.

One of the most striking and fully preserved myths about the struggle of the sun with enemies is the myth of Mount Bekhdet. Horus of Bekhdet, considered the son of Ra, was himself revered as a solar being, embodied in the form of a falcon. In this myth, Horus acts not only as the son of Ra, but also as Ra himself, merging with him into one syncretic deity Ra-Garahuti (Garahuti means “Horus of both horizons”). The myth tells how Horus, accompanying the boat of Ra sailing along the Nile, defeats all the enemies of the great god, who turned into crocodiles and hippopotamuses. Horus, the son of Isis, joins Horus of Bekhdet, and together they pursue the fleeing enemies. The leader of the enemies, Seth, personifying the milestone of monsters, is also destroyed. The origin of the myth dates back to the beginning of copper processing in Egypt. During the formation of the ancient Egyptian state, the victory of Horus was interpreted as the victory of Upper Egypt in the struggle for the unification of the country, and Horus began to be revered as the patron god of royal power.

The third main cycle of myths of Ancient Egypt is associated with Osiris. The cult of Osiris is associated with the spread of agriculture in Egypt. He is the god of the productive forces of nature, withering and resurrecting vegetation. So, sowing was considered the funeral of the grain - Osiris, the emergence of shoots was perceived as his rebirth, and the cutting of ears during the harvest was perceived as the killing of God. These functions of Osiris are reflected in an extremely widespread legend describing his death and rebirth. Osiris, who reigned happily in Egypt, treacherously killed him younger brother, evil Seth. Osiris’s sisters Isis (who is also his wife) and Nephthys search for the body of the murdered man for a long time, and when they find it, they mourn. Isis conceives a son, Horus, from her dead husband. Having matured, Horus enters into a fight with Set; at the court of the gods, with the help of Isis, he achieves recognition of himself as the only rightful heir of Osiris. Having defeated Set, Horus resurrects his father. However, Osiris, not wanting to stay on earth, becomes the king of the underworld and the supreme judge over the dead. The throne of Osiris on earth passes to Horus. (In another version of the myth, the resurrection of Osiris is associated with the annual floods of the Nile, which are explained by the fact that Isis, mourning Osiris, after the “night of tears” fills the river with her tears).

Already in the era of the Old Kingdom, living pharaohs were considered as “servants of Horus” (which is intertwined with ideas about Horus of Bekhdet) and successors of his power, and the dead were identified with Osiris. The pharaoh, thanks to a magical funeral rite, comes to life after death in the same way as Osiris came to life. Since the era of the Middle Kingdom, not only the pharaoh, but also every deceased Egyptian has been identified with Osiris, and in funeral texts the name “Osiris” must be placed before the name of the deceased. This “democratization” of ideas about Osiris after the fall of the Old Kingdom is associated with the strengthening of the nobility and the emergence of a layer of wealthy commoners in the horse. 3rd millennium BC The cult of Osiris becomes the center of all funeral beliefs. It was believed that every Egyptian, like Osiris, would be reborn to an eternal afterlife if all funeral rituals were followed.

Myths associated with Osiris are reflected in numerous rituals. At the end of the last winter month "Khoyak" - the beginning of the first month of spring "Tibi" the mysteries of Osiris were performed, during which the main episodes of the myth about him were reproduced in dramatic form. Priestesses in the images of Isis and Nephthys depicted the search, mourning and burial of the god. Then the “great battle” took place between Horus and Set. The drama ended with the erection of the “djed” pillar dedicated to Osiris, symbolizing the rebirth of God and, indirectly, of all nature. In the pre-dynastic period, the holiday ended with the struggle of participants in two groups of mysteries (Mystery-worship, a set of secret religious events dedicated to deities, in which only initiates were allowed to participate): one of them represented summer, and the other - winter. Summer always won (the resurrection of nature). After the unification of the country under the rule of the rulers of Upper Egypt, the nature of the mysteries changes. Now two groups are fighting, one of which is in the clothes of Upper Egypt, and the other - of Lower Egypt. Victory, naturally, remains with the group symbolizing Upper Egypt. During the days of the Mysteries of Osiris, dramatized rites of coronation of the pharaohs were also celebrated. During the mystery, the young pharaoh acted as Horus, the son of Isis, and the deceased king was portrayed as Osiris sitting on the throne.

The character of Osiris as the god of vegetation was reflected in another cycle of rituals. In a special room of the temple, a clay likeness of the figure of Osiris was erected, which was sown with grain. For the holiday of Osiris, his image was covered with green shoots, which symbolized the rebirth of the god. In the drawings one often sees the mummy of Osiris with shoots sprouted from it, which are watered by the priest.

The idea of ​​Osiris as the god of fertility was also transferred to the pharaoh, who was considered the magical focus of the country’s fertility and therefore participated in all the main rituals of an agricultural nature: with the onset of the rise of the Nile, he threw a scroll into the river - a decree that the beginning of the flood had arrived; the first to solemnly begin preparing the soil for sowing; cut the first sheaf at the festival of harvest; for the whole country he made a thanksgiving sacrifice to the goddess of the harvest Renenutet and the statues of the dead pharaohs after completing field work.

The wide spread of the cult of Osiris was also reflected in ideas about Isis. Revered as a loving sister and selflessly devoted wife of Osiris, a caring mother of the baby Horus and at the same time a great sorceress, in the Greco-Roman era she turned into an all-Egyptian mother goddess, and her cult spread far beyond the borders of Egypt.

Many characters from Egyptian mythology were revered in neighboring countries, particularly in Kush (Ancient Nubia), which was under Egyptian rule for a long time. The state god of Kush was Amun, his oracles invented the king. The cult of Horus developed in numerous local forms, penetrating Kush during the Old Kingdom. The myths about Isis, Osiris and Horus were popular, and Isis was considered the patroness of royal power; the place of Osiris was often replaced by local deities (Apedemak, Arensnupis, Dedun, Mandulis, Sebuimeker). Ra, Onuris, Thoth Ptah, Khnum, Hapi, Hathor were also revered in Kush. The inhabitants of Kush also adopted many of the Egyptian ideas about the afterlife and the judgment that Osiris administers over the dead.

The mythological views of Ancient Egypt were widely reflected in architecture, art, and literature. In and around Egyptian temples there were sculptural images of deities, thought of as “bodies” in which these deities were embodied. The idea that the dead should have a home led to the construction of special tombs: mastabas, pyramids, rock crypts. Tombs and temples were decorated with reliefs and paintings on mythological themes. In case of damage or destruction of the mummified body of the deceased, a portrait statue of him (along with the mummy, intended to be a receptacle for his ba and ka) was placed in the tomb. The paintings and reliefs in the tombs were supposed to create a familiar environment for the deceased: they depicted his home, family members, festivals, servants and slaves in the fields and in workshops, etc. The tombs also contained figurines of servants engaged in various types agricultural, craft work, servicing the deceased. In the burials of the New Kingdom era in large quantities the so-called ushabti, special figurines, usually in the form of a swaddled mummy, have been preserved. It was believed that the deceased would revive them with the power of magical spells and they would work for him in the afterlife.

Religious and magical literature, which depicted many of the mythological ideas of the Egyptians, had high literary merits. Mythological subjects are widely reflected in fairy tales. For example, in the fairy tale “Snake Island” (“Shipwrecked”) there is a huge snake that can incinerate a person with its breath, but can also save him and predict the future. This image arose under the influence of ideas about snake gods. In another tale, the god Ra appears to Rededet, the wife of the priest Rauser, in the form of her husband, and from this marriage three twins are born - the children of the founders of the new dynasty of pharaohs. Under the influence of the myth of Osiris, a fairy tale about two brothers Bata and Anubis was created, in which the falsely accused Bata dies and then comes to life again with the help of Anubis (the features of the bull god Bata are also preserved in the image of Bata). In the fairy tale “On Falsehood and Truth,” the younger brother blinds the elder (whose name is Osiris) and takes possession of his goods, but Osiris’ son Horus avenges his father and restores justice. The tale of the wise young man Sa-Osiris (his name means “Son of Osiris”) describes the afterlife, where he leads his father, and the judgment of the dead.

References:1. Torosyan V.G. Culturology. History of world and domestic culture: textbook. manual for university students / M.: Humanitarian. from. VLADOS center, 2005. – 735 p. 2. Cultural studies. History of world culture. Ed. A.N. Markova /M.: Unity, Moscow, 2001.-575 p.

3. Myths of the peoples of the world. Encyclopedia in 2 volumes. Ch. ed. S.A. Tokarev. - M.: "Soviet Encyclopedia", 1980. - vol.1. A - K. 672 p. from ill. 4. Mythology. Encyclopedia /M.: Belfax, 2002

The mythology of Ancient Egypt is interesting and is largely connected with numerous gods. People for every important event or natural phenomenon came up with their own patron, but they were different external signs And .

The main gods of Ancient Egypt

The country's religion is distinguished by the presence of numerous beliefs, which is directly reflected in the appearance of the gods, who in most cases are presented as a hybrid of humans and animals. Egyptian gods and their meaning were of great importance to people, as evidenced by numerous temples, statues and images. Among them are the main deities who were responsible for important aspects of the life of the Egyptians.

Egyptian god Amon Ra

In ancient times, this deity was depicted as a man with the head of a ram or completely in the form of an animal. In his hands he holds a cross with a loop, which symbolizes life and immortality. It combines the gods of Ancient Egypt Amun and Ra, so it has the power and influence of both. He was favorable to people, helping them in difficult situations, and therefore was presented as a caring and fair creator of all things.

And Amon illuminated the earth, moving across the sky along the river, and at night transferring to the underground Nile to return to their home. People believed that every day at midnight he fights with a huge snake. Amon Ra was considered the main patron of the pharaohs. In mythology, one can notice that the cult of this god constantly changed its significance, sometimes falling, sometimes rising.

Egyptian god Osiris

In Ancient Egypt, the deity was represented in the form of a man wrapped in a shroud, which added to the resemblance to a mummy. Osiris was the ruler the afterlife, so the head was always crowned. According to the mythology of Ancient Egypt, this was the first king of this country, so in his hands are symbols of power - a whip and a scepter. His skin is black and this color symbolizes rebirth and new life. Osiris is always accompanied by a plant, such as a lotus, a vine and a tree.

The Egyptian god of fertility is multifaceted, meaning Osiris performed many duties. He was revered as the patron of vegetation and the productive forces of nature. Osiris was considered the main patron and protector of people, and also the ruler of the underworld, who judged dead people. Osiris taught people to cultivate the land, grow grapes, treat various diseases and perform other important work.

Egyptian god Anubis

The main feature of this deity is the body of a man with the head of a black dog or jackal. This animal was not chosen at all by chance, the whole point is that the Egyptians often saw it in cemeteries, which is why they were associated with the afterlife. In some images, Anubis is represented entirely in the form of a wolf or jackal, which lies on a chest. In ancient Egypt, the jackal-headed god of the dead had several important responsibilities.

1. Protected graves, so people often carved prayers to Anubis on tombs.
2. He took part in the embalming of gods and pharaohs. Many depictions of mummification processes featured a priest wearing a dog mask.
3. A guide for dead souls to the afterlife. In Ancient Egypt, they believed that Anubis escorted people to the judgment of Osiris.

He weighed the heart of a deceased person to determine whether the soul was worthy of going to the afterlife. A heart is placed on the scales on one side, and the goddess Maat in the form of an ostrich feather is placed on the other.

Egyptian god Set

They represented a deity with the body of a man and the head of a mythical animal, which combines a dog and a tapir. Another one distinguishing feature- heavy wig. Set is the brother of Osiris and, in the understanding of the ancient Egyptians, is the god of evil. He was often depicted with the head of a sacred animal - a donkey. Seth was considered the personification of war, drought and death. All troubles and misfortunes were attributed to this god of Ancient Egypt. They did not renounce him only because they were considered the main defender of Ra during the night battle with the serpent.

Egyptian god Horus

This deity has several incarnations, but the most famous is a man with the head of a falcon, on which there is certainly a crown. Its symbol is the sun with outstretched wings. The Egyptian sun god lost his eye during a fight, which became an important sign in mythology. It is a symbol of wisdom, clairvoyance and eternal life. In Ancient Egypt, the Eye of Horus was worn as an amulet.

According to ancient ideas, Horus was revered as a predatory deity who latched onto his prey with falcon talons. There is another myth where he moves across the sky on a boat. The sun god Horus helped Osiris to resurrect, for which he received the throne in gratitude and became the ruler. Many gods patronized him, teaching him magic and various wisdom.

Egyptian god Geb

Several original images found by archaeologists have survived to this day. Geb is the patron of the earth, which the Egyptians sought to convey in an external image: the body is elongated, like a plain, arms raised upward - the personification of the slopes. In Ancient Egypt, he was represented with his wife Nut, the patroness of heaven. Although there are many drawings, there is not much information about Geb's powers and purposes. The god of the earth in Egypt was the father of Osiris and Isis. There was a whole cult, which included people working in the fields to protect themselves from hunger and ensure a good harvest.

Egyptian god Thoth

The deity was represented in two guises and in ancient times, it was an ibis bird with a long curved beak. He was considered a symbol of dawn and a harbinger of abundance. In the later period, Thoth was represented as a baboon. There are gods of Ancient Egypt who live among people, and one of them is He, who was the patron of wisdom and helped everyone learn science. It was believed that he taught the Egyptians writing, counting, and also created a calendar.

Thoth is the god of the Moon and through its phases he has been associated with various astronomical and astrological observations. This was the reason for his transformation into a deity of wisdom and magic. Thoth was considered the founder of numerous religious rites. In some sources he is ranked among the deities of time. In the pantheon of gods of Ancient Egypt, Thoth occupied the place of scribe, vizier of Ra and secretary of judicial affairs.

Egyptian god Aten

The deity of the solar disk, who was represented with rays in the form of palms, reaching towards the earth and people. This distinguished him from other humanoid gods. The most famous image is presented on the back of Tutankhamun's throne. There is an opinion that the cult of this deity influenced the formation and development of Jewish monotheism. This sun god in Egypt combines masculine and feminine traits at the same time. In ancient times they also used the term “silver of Aten”, which meant the Moon.

Egyptian god Ptah

The deity was represented in the form of a man who, unlike others, did not wear a crown, and his head was covered with a headdress that looked like a helmet. Like other gods of Ancient Egypt associated with the earth (Osiris and Sokar), Ptah was clothed in a shroud that exposed only the hands and head. External similarity led to a merger into one common deity Ptah-Sokar-Osiris. The Egyptians considered him a beautiful god, but many archaeological finds refute this opinion, since portraits were found where he is represented as a dwarf trampling animals underfoot.

Ptah is the patron saint of the city of Memphis, where there was a myth that he created everything on earth with the power of thought and word, so he was considered a creator. He had a connection with the earth, the burial place of the dead and sources of fertility. Another purpose of Ptah is the Egyptian god of art, which is why he was considered a blacksmith and sculptor of humanity, and also the patron of artisans.

Egyptian god Apis

The Egyptians had many sacred animals, but the most revered was the bull - Apis. He had a real embodiment and was credited with 29 signs that were known only to the priests. They were used to determine the birth of a new god in the form of a black bull, and this was a famous holiday in Ancient Egypt. The bull was placed in the temple and was surrounded with divine honors throughout his life. Once a year, before the start of agricultural work, Apis was harnessed and the pharaoh plowed a furrow. This ensured a good harvest in the future. After death, the bull was solemnly buried.

Apis, the Egyptian god who protects fertility, was depicted with a snow-white skin with several black spots, and their number was strictly determined. It is presented with different necklaces that corresponded to different holiday rituals. Between the horns is the solar disk of the god Ra. Apis could also take human form with the head of a bull, but this idea was widespread in the Late Period.

Pantheon of Egyptian gods

From the moment of inception ancient civilization there was also a belief in Higher power. The Pantheon was populated by gods who had different abilities. They did not always treat people favorably, so the Egyptians built temples in their honor, brought gifts and prayed. The pantheon of Egyptian gods has more than two thousand names, but less than a hundred of them can be classified as the main group. Some deities were worshiped only in certain regions or tribes. Another important point is that the hierarchy could change depending on the dominant political force.

Peculiarities: deification of animals, developed funeral cult
Cycle of myths: creation of the world, punishment of people for sins, the struggle of the sun god Ra with Apep, death and resurrection of Osiris

Ancient Egyptian religion - religious beliefs and rituals practiced in ancient Egypt from the pre-dynastic period until the adoption of Christianity. Over its many-thousand-year history, the ancient Egyptian religion went through various stages of development: from the Ancient, Middle and New Kingdoms to the Late and Greco-Roman periods.

Early beliefs

The prehistoric tribes of the Nile Valley, like representatives of other primitive cultures, saw manifestations of powerful mysterious forces in all diverse objects and natural phenomena inaccessible to their understanding. A typical form of early religion for them was fetishism and totemism, which experienced various changes under the influence of the population's transition from nomadism to a sedentary lifestyle. The most famous ancient Egyptian fetishes: Imiut, Ben-Ben stone, Iunu pillar, Djed pillar; The common Egyptian religious symbols also originate from ancient fetishes: Ankh, Wadjet, Was.

The oldest fetishes:

Imiut

Pillar Djed

To a large extent, the beliefs of the primitive Egyptians, as well as their entire lives, were influenced by the Nile, the annual flood of which deposited fertile soil on the banks, which made it possible to collect good harvests (the personification of beneficial forces), but sometimes it caused significant disasters - floods (the personification of destructive forces for humans). Frequency of river floods and monitoring starry sky, made it possible to create the ancient Egyptian calendar with sufficient accuracy, thanks to which the Egyptians early mastered the basics of astronomy, which also affected their beliefs. In the first settlements-cities of the Egyptians that emerged, there were various deities, specific for each individual locality, usually in the form of a material fetish, but much more often in the form of an animal - a totem.

Animal cult

The oldest form of religion in Egypt, as far as can be traced from historical monuments, was the veneration of local nomic patron deities. The nomes were undoubtedly the remnants of ancient tribes united at the end of the fourth millennium BC. e. under the general authority of the pharaoh. Nomes and cities were often compared and associated with their animal gods, which was reflected in their names, and many hieroglyphs in Egyptian writing were symbols of animals, birds, reptiles, fish and insects, which were ideograms denoting some deities. The cult of the noma gods turned out to be extremely stable: it lasted until the very end of the history of Ancient Egypt, already combined with the worship of common Egyptian deities.

These local nome cults retained deeply archaic features; each nome revered its own sacred animal, which was associated in one way or another with the local god. The latter was often depicted either in the form of this animal, or in a mixed, zooanthropomorphic image. Examples can be given endlessly. Almost every representative of the Egyptian fauna was revered in one area or another (and some throughout the country). So, in the southernmost nome - Elephantine, the ram was revered, in Dendera - the cow, in Siut - the jackal, in Hermopolis - the ibis and baboon, in Bubastis - the cat. The goddess-kite was considered the patroness of Nekhen, where the most ancient unification of Southern Egypt came from, and the water lily was revered nearby in Nekheb. The most ancient center of associations in Northern Egypt, Bugo, revered the sacred snake, and the neighboring community of Pe revered the bee. Hieroglyphs depicting the last four creatures subsequently came to symbolize a united Egypt.

Sebek

In many areas (especially in the Fayum oasis), the crocodile was considered the sacred and inviolable ruler of river waters, and hunting it was strictly prohibited. Small crocodiles were placed in temple ponds, fed honey cakes and, in case of premature death, mummified, shrouded in burial shrouds and buried with honor.

Birds such as the ibis, falcon, kite, and among insects, especially the dung beetle (the so-called scarab), were greatly revered.

Sometimes, from the countless representatives of a particular animal species, one representative was selected and declared a god. The sacred Apis bull was chosen according to its special features (it had to be black, but with a white round spot on its forehead, with special hairs on its tail, etc.). When such an exceptional bull was found after a long selection, he was brought to Memphis, to a special temple and declared sacred and inviolable. When his happy life ended, he was buried in a special crypt (discovered during archaeological excavations) and the city plunged into mourning. Then the search for a new Apis began, and when he was found, mourning was replaced by jubilation.

Apparently, here we have the remains of ancient totemism. Many researchers, however, are skeptical about this assumption, since the cult of animals in Egypt was local, not tribal. Meanwhile, the ethnography of Africa gives us convincing examples of the development of classical tribal totemism into territorial veneration of animals: this was the case, for example, among the tribes of Southern Nigeria.

Livitsa Sekhmet. Work of a modern author

Almost all researchers admit that in the veneration of local patron gods there was a process of anthropomorphization of sacred animals. At least in relation to many gods this is beyond doubt: for example, the cat turned into the goddess Bastet, depicted with a cat's head; falcon - into the god Horus. Images of Thoth with the head of an ibis, Anubis with the head of a dog, Sobek with the head of a crocodile, the goddess Sokhmet with the head of a lioness, Hathor with the head of a cow, etc. serve as an obvious indication of the origin of these zooanthropomorphic images from sacred animals.

Gods Osiris, Horus and Isis. 9th century BC

Pantheon of Gods of Egypt

Deities of Ancient Egypt

Appearance

Egyptian gods have an unusual, sometimes very bizarre appearance. This is due to the fact that the religion of Egypt consisted of many local beliefs. Over time, some gods acquired aspects, and some merged with each other, for example, Amun and Ra formed the single god Amun-Ra. In total, Egyptian mythology has about 700 gods, although most of them were revered only in certain areas.

The cult of animals, widespread in all periods of Egyptian history, left a clear mark on Egyptian mythology. Gods in the form of animals, with the heads of birds and animals, scorpion gods, and snake gods act in Egyptian myths along with deities in human form. The more powerful a god was considered, the more cult animals were attributed to him, in the form of which he could appear to people.

Several gods are represented by abstractions: Amun, Aten, Nun, Bekhdeti, Kuk, Niau, Heh, Gerech, Tenemu.

Some major deities of Ancient Egypt:

Amon - sun god

Amon (Amen, Amun, Imen, “hidden”, “hidden”) - the ancient Egyptian god of the Sun, king of the gods (nsw nTrw) and patron of the power of the pharaohs. Amon's sacred animal is the ram and the goose (both symbols of wisdom). God was depicted as a man (sometimes with the head of a ram), with a scepter and a crown, with two tall feathers and a solar disk. The cult of Amon originated in Thebes and then spread throughout Egypt. Amun's wife, the sky goddess Mut, and his son, the moon god Khonsu, formed the Theban triad with him. Already in the First Intermediate Period, the first mentions of Amun appeared not just as an independent deity, but as a demiurge and supreme god. The title “Wife of the God Amun” appears, which was initially possessed by the high priestesses, and later exclusively by women of royal blood.

Creator God Amon. Temple of Amun-Ra at Karnak

Goddess Mut. Ancient sculpture

Mut , Egyptian goddess (actually “mother”) is an ancient Egyptian goddess, queen of heaven, second member of the Theban triad (Amun-Mut-Khonsu), mother goddess and patroness of motherhood. Initially, Mut was considered an epithet of the waters of Naunet, the female couple of the original ocean Nun, in the system of mythological views associated with the Hermapolian Ogdoad. Over time, Mut herself began to act in the image of a creator goddess. During the rise of Thebes, which became the capital of Egypt in the Middle Kingdom, the importance of the local god Amun, proclaimed the king of the gods, correspondingly increased, so the place of his wife Amaunet (Amonet), who was just the female equivalent of Amon, was taken by the more colorful goddess Mut. Mut was considered the mother, wife and daughter of Amun, “the mother of her creator and the daughter of her son” - an expression of divine pre-eternity. Among her names are also “mother goddess”, “queen of goddesses”, “mistress (queen) of heaven”, “mother of gods”. The constant epithet of Mut is “the mistress of Lake Ishru”, named after the sacred lake at her temple, built by Amenhotep III to the northeast of the main Karnak temple of Amun-Ra and connected to it by an avenue of sphinxes. Mut was depicted as a woman, with crowns and a vulture - her hieroglyph - on her head. Having her own son, Khonsu, Mut also adopted Montu, including him in the Theban pantheon, which confirmed her status as the goddess of motherhood.

Khonsu - god of the moon

Khonsou - (“passing”), in Egyptian mythology, the god of the moon, the god of time and its dimensions, the son of Amon and the sky goddess Mut. Khonsu was also revered as the god of travel. As the patron of medicine, Khonsu became close to the god of wisdom Thoth and was part of the Theban triad of deities. During the Middle Kingdom, when he was sometimes called the scribe of truth (subsequently the complex deity Khonsu-Thoth is often found). Khonsu was also considered a healing god; A tale has reached us about the miracle of his statue, allegedly performed in Mesopotamia over the king’s possessed daughter (the so-called inscription about Bentresht). At Thebes there was a large temple of Khonsu between the temple of Amun and Mut; he was highly revered and adorned by the Ramessides, as well as the kings of the XXI and XXVI dynasties; From this time on the walls, hymns in honor of Khonsu have been preserved. He was depicted as a man with a lunar crescent and a disk on his head, as well as with the head of a falcon and with the same lunar attributes. In the images of Khonsu that have come down to us, we most often see a young man with a sickle and a moon disk on his head; sometimes he appears in the guise of a child god with a finger at his mouth and a “lock of youth,” which boys wore on the side of their heads until adulthood. The center of the cult of Khonsu was Thebes; its main temple was located in Karnak.

Khonsou. New Kingdom period

Ra - Sun

Ra(ancient Greek Ρα; lat. Ra) - the ancient Egyptian sun god, the supreme deity of the ancient Egyptians. His name means "Sun" (Coptic PH). The center of the cult was Heliopolis, where Ra was identified with the more ancient local solar deity, Atum, and where the Phoenix bird, Mnevis the bull and the obelisk Ben-Ben were dedicated to him as incarnations. In other religious centers, Ra, in line with religious syncretism, was also compared with local deities of light: Amon (in Thebes), under the name Amun-Ra, Khnum (in Elephantine) - in the form of Khnum-Ra, Horus - in the form of Ra-Horakhty. The latter comparison was especially common. Ra was depicted in the form of a falcon, a huge cat or a man with a falcon's head crowned with a solar disk. Ra, the sun god, was the father of Wajit, the cobra of the North, who protected the pharaoh from the scorching rays of the sun. According to the myth, during the day the beneficent Ra, illuminating the earth, sails along the heavenly Nile in the barge Manjet, in the evening he transfers to the barge Mesektet and in it continues his journey along the underground Nile, and in the morning, having defeated the serpent Apophis in a nightly battle, he reappears on the horizon. A number of myths about Ra are associated with Egyptian ideas about the change of seasons. The spring blossoming of nature heralded the return of the goddess of moisture Tefnut, the fiery Eye shining on the forehead of Ra, and her marriage with Shu. The summer heat was explained by Ra's anger at people. According to the myth, when the god Ra grew old, and people stopped revere him and even “plotted evil deeds against him,” Ra immediately convened a council of gods led by Nun (or Atum), at which it was decided to punish the human race. The goddess Sekhmet (Hathor) in the form of a lioness killed and devoured people until she was tricked into drinking barley beer as red as blood. Having become drunk, the goddess fell asleep and forgot about revenge, and Ra, having proclaimed Hebe as his viceroy on earth, climbed onto the back of a heavenly cow and from there continued to rule the world.

God Atum

Atum (Jtm) - god of first creation and the sun, demiurge, head of the Heliopolis Ennead, one of the most ancient gods. In many ancient Egyptian texts, Atum is called the evening or setting sun. Depicted as a man (often an old man) in the robes of a pharaoh with the double red and white crown of Upper and Lower Egypt. At the end of each cycle of creation, Atum took the form of a serpent, as well as a lizard, lion, bull, monkey or ichneumon (Egyptian mongoose). His title in ancient times was “Lord of both lands,” that is, Upper and Lower Egypt. Hand of Atum - goddess Iusat. According to the Heliopolitan myth, Atum, who “created himself,” arose from the primeval chaos - Nun, who is sometimes called the father of Atum, along with the primeval hill. Having fertilized himself, that is, having swallowed his own seed, Atum gave birth, spitting out of his mouth, twin gods: air - Shu and moisture - Tefnut, from which the earth - Geb and sky - Nut originated. In Memphis, the origin of Atum was traced back to Ptah, Atum was identified with Ptah, as well as with Khepri (Atum-Khepri, in some sayings of the Pyramid Texts this deity is called the creator of Osiris), Apis (Atum-Apis), Osiris was brought closer to him ("Living Apis-Osiris - the lord of the sky Atum with two horns on his head"). In the myth of the extermination of people, Atum heads the council of gods, at which the lioness goddess Hathor-Sekhmet was tasked with punishing people who plotted evil against Ra. In another myth, an angry Atum threatens to destroy everything he has created and turn the world into water element. Separately, the hand of Atum was revered as the goddess Iusat; sometimes this deity is described as the shadow of Atum. Subsequently, the veneration of Atum was pushed aside by the cult of Ra, identified with him as Pa-Atum.

Atum with double crown

God Ptah

Ptah or Ptah, is one of the names of the Creator God in the ancient Egyptian religious tradition. God the creator, patron of arts and crafts, especially revered in Memphis. Ptah created the first eight gods (his hypostases - Ptahs), the world and everything that exists in it (animals, plants, people, cities, temples, crafts, arts, etc.) “with tongue and heart.” Having conceived creation in his heart, he expressed his thoughts and commands in words. Sometimes Ptah was called the father of even such gods as Ra and Osiris. Ptah's wife was the goddess of war, Sekhmet, and his son was Nefertum, the god of vegetation. Ptah was depicted as a mummy with an open head, with a rod or staff standing on a hieroglyph meaning truth. The sacred bull Apis was revered as the living embodiment of the god Ptah. In Greek mythology, Hephaestus most closely matches him. The name Ptah was often accompanied by the epithet “He who is beyond the southern wall” (the south in Egyptian symbolism is the image of eternity), in other words, Ptah is God on the other side of creation, the One who is in eternity, God in Himself, the Creator beyond Of your creation. Saying 647 of the Sarcophagus Texts contains a saying in the name of Ptah: “I am He who is south of My wall, the lord of the gods, the king of heaven, the creator of souls, the ruler of both lands (heaven and earth - approx.), the creator of souls, the giver of souls crowns, essentiality and being, I am the creator of souls and their life is in My hand, when I desire, I create and they live, for I am the creative word that is on My lips and the wisdom that is in My body, My dignity is in my hands, I “Lord.” The center of worship of Ptah was the city of Memphis. A peculiar image of the mysterious and incomprehensible existence of Ptah was the very location of the Memphis Temple of Ptah - outside the city walls, behind the southern wall. The cult of Ptah had a pan-Egyptian character and was also widespread in Nubia, Palestine, and Sinai. According to the “Monument of Memphis Theology” - a theological work of the Memphis priests, which apparently records an older tradition, Ptah is the demiurge, the Creator God, who created the first eight gods (the primary qualities of creation, or manifestations of His divine essence), who made up four pairs: Nun and Nunet (abyss), the very use of a pair of names, male and female, is a symbolic indication of the ability to give birth to life; Huh and Huhet (innumerability, embracing everything, infinity), Kuk and Kuket (darkness, also possessing the potentialities of creation); Amon and Amonet (formlessness, absence of a specific image - not to be confused with the name of the Creator Amon) from which He creates the world and everything that exists in it (animals, plants, people, cities, temples, crafts, arts, etc.) d.) “with the tongue and the heart”, having conceived the creation in one’s heart and calling what was conceived in the tongue (pronouncing it with the Word). From Ptah came Light and Truth, and He is also the creator of the kingdom (royalty, as the principle of organizing life).

God Ptah. Statue from the treasury of Tutankhamun. XIV century BC

God Shu wearing an elaborate crown with four feathers

Shu - Egyptian deity of air, wind and lower sky (above which is Nut). Shu (“empty”), in Egyptian mythology, the god of air, separating heaven and earth, the son of the solar god Ra-Atum, the husband and brother of the goddess of moisture Tefnut. He was most often depicted as a man standing on one knee with his arms raised, with which he supported the sky above the earth. According to the Heliopolis legend about the creation of the world, he was considered the father of Geb and Nut. During the creation of the universe, Shu raised the sky - Nut - from the earth - Hebe and then supported it with outstretched hands. When Ra, after his reign, sat on the back of a celestial cow, Shu also supported her with his hands. Thus, Shu is the god of the air space illuminated by the sun; subsequently he received the character of a deity of the scorching midday sun. In the hymns (in the magical papyrus of Harris) Shu is magnified as the overthrower of the enemies of light, striking them with a spear and flame.

Shu with the feather of Maat

God Shu is one of the judges over the dead in the afterlife. Later myths told about the reign of Shu on earth together with Tefnut after the departure of Ra: “His Majesty Shu was an excellent king of the sky, the earth, the underworld, the waters, the winds, the floods, the mountains, the sea.” After many millennia, he also ascended to heaven. In the myth of the return of Tefnut, the solar Eye, from Nubia, Shu, together with Thoth, taking the form of a baboon, singing and dancing, returned the goddess to Egypt, where, after her marriage to Shu, the spring flowering of nature began.

God Shu. Ivory. XIV century BC

As the god of the wind, Shu was part of the Heliopolis Ennead of gods. Shu was considered the second member of the great Ennead and was compared with the god of war Anhur (the latter’s name means “bearer of the sky”), revered in Thinis and Sebennit, with Thoth and Khonsu. Heliopolis (in Greek - “city of the sun”; Egyptian name - Iunu), an ancient city in the Nile Delta, north of modern Cairo. From the V dynasty (XXVI-XXV centuries BC) to the Ptolemaic dynasty, Heliopolis was the center of the cult of the god Ra, identified with the local god Atum, the father of the god Shu. Heliopolis itself in Hellenistic times is identified with the biblical city of On.

Tefnut - Nubian cat

Tefnut , Also Tefnet, laudatory name Nubian cat- in Egyptian mythology, the goddess of moisture , moist air, dew, rain, fertility, calendar seasons, Ennead. Her earthly incarnation was a lioness (sometimes depicted as a cat). Included in the Heliopolis Ennead. The center of the Tefnut cult is Heliopolis. According to the Heliopolis myth, Tefnut and her husband Shu are the first pair of twin gods, generated by Atum (Ra-Atum). Their children are Geb and Nut. Sometimes Tefnut is called the wife of Ptah. Tefnut is also the daughter of Ra, his beloved eye. They said about her: “The daughter of Ra is on his forehead.” When Ra rises above the horizon in the morning. Tefnut shines like a fiery eye in his forehead and burns the enemies of the great god. In this capacity, Tefnut was identified with the goddess Uto (Uraeus) . The hypostasis of Tefnut was the goddess of flame Upes, and her other hypostasis was often the goddess of writing Seshat. There is a known myth according to which Tefnut - the Eye of Ra retired to Nubia (and a period of drought began in Egypt), and then at the request of her father, who sent Thoth and Shu (in the ancient version - Onuris) after her. came back. The arrival of Tefnut from Nubia and her subsequent marriage to Shu foreshadow the flowering of nature. Tefnut was identified with Mut, Bast, as well as with Hathor, Sekhmet and other lioness goddesses (Menkhit. Ment), revered in Egypt.

Geb and Nut. (Here the goddess of space is depicted as a woman, she is curved in the form of a dome, has an exorbitant Long hands and legs (supports) and only touches the ground (depicted as a man) with the tips of his fingers and toes. Shu, who separates this couple, also does not look tense under the weight of the “celestial body”.)

Geb - Ancient Egyptian god of the earth, son of Shu and Tefnut, brother and husband of Nut and father of Osiris, Isis, Set and Nephthys. Geb, in Egyptian mythology, the god of the earth, the son of the god of air Shu and the goddess of moisture Tefnut. Geb quarreled with his sister and wife Nut ("heaven"), because she daily ate her children - the heavenly bodies, and then gave birth to them again. Shu separated the spouses. He left Geb at the bottom and raised Nut up. The children of Geb were Osiris, Set, Isis, Nephthys. The soul (Ba) of Hebe was embodied in the god of fertility Khnum. The ancients believed that Geb was good: he protects the living and the dead from snakes living in the earth, people need plants, which is why he was sometimes depicted with a green face. Geb was associated with the underworld of the dead, and his title “prince of princes” gave him the right to be considered the ruler of Egypt. Geb belonged to the Heliopolis Ennead of the gods. In the Pyramid Texts, Geb appears as the embodiment of the underworld and the god of the Duat, taking part in the judgment of Osiris over the dead. Duat, in Egyptian mythology, the place of residence of the dead; according to the most ancient ideas of the Early Kingdom, it was in the sky, in the east, where the sun rises. During the Middle Kingdom in Ancient Egypt, the idea of ​​the Duat as an underground world beyond the western horizon, where the Sun sets, was formed. The heir of Geb is Osiris, from him the throne passed to Horus, and the pharaohs were considered the successors and servants of Horus, who considered their power as given by the gods.

Classic depiction of the goddess Nut

Chickpeas (Well, Nuit) is the ancient Egyptian goddess of the Sky, daughter of Shu and Tefnut, sister and wife of Geb and mother of Osiris, Isis, Set and Nephthys. Under different pronunciations (Nuit, Nu, Nut) the most ancient goddess of the ancient Egyptian pantheon is known - the goddess of the sky, especially revered in the territory of Heliopolis. Behind the symbolism of Nut lies an explanation for the regular cycle of night and day. Thus, the Egyptians believed that Nut eats the sun and stars in order to give birth to them again. In addition, the cult of the goddess was closely connected with the afterlife, namely, it was believed that her function included the ascension of the souls of the dead to heaven, so they said that she contained “a thousand souls.” Nut also guarded the tombs of the dead. Her epithets: “Great”, “huge mother of stars”, “giving birth to gods”. The classic image of Nut is a woman stretched across the sky, touching the ground with the tips of her toes and hands. Often her husband and brother Geb are depicted parallel to her on the ground. The well-known ancient Egyptian image of the Cow of Heaven is also associated with Nut. But it is worth noting that behind it lies not the airspace, of which Shu was the patron, but more distant areas, what today we call Space. By the way, many researchers share the version that it was from the image of the Celestial Cow that our Galaxy, the Milky Way, got its name.

Nut as a Heavenly Cow

In general, it should be noted that the image of the Heavenly Cow is one of the most archaic in ancient Egyptian mythology. After deciphering the texts decorating the interior of the pyramids, the role of this symbol became clear. In particular, they contain the following phrases: “He [the pharaoh] is the son of a great wild cow. She becomes pregnant with him and gives birth to him, and he is placed under her wing”; "The star floats on the ocean under Nut's body." From this it is obvious that Nut is an entity located even somewhere beyond the stars, and the presence of wings is an additional symbol of the sky.

Ancient image of the goddess Nut

The question of the essence of the cosmos was probably of great interest to the ancient Egyptians, which is why they paid so much attention to the image of the cow and the woman Nut, often accompanied by images of wings, a roof, and the ocean. Space is one of the main mysteries for ancient man, who, despite the difficulties, the goddess Nut in the image of the Heavenly Cow tried in every possible way to explain this phenomenon. The main feature of the ancient cosmos can be considered its spiritualization, worship of it as a kind of living substance. Behind the abstract symbols lies a huge and mindless soul. The same cannot be said, by the way, about the modern understanding of space, where everything becomes extremely simple and prosaic. In Ancient Egypt there was an interesting legend associated with Nut. It was believed that Nun advised the goddess, appearing in the form of a Celestial Cow, to help old Ra climb to heaven. However, having already reached a great height, Nut felt that her strength was running out, her head was spinning, and her legs were giving way. Then old Ra ordered to call on some gods to help the Heavenly Cow, so that they would support her. The will of the sun god was fulfilled by the great Nun. By his order, Nut’s legs began to be supported by eight gods, and Shu himself was entrusted with his belly. This plot is often presented in the form of an image. In particular, in such drawings, Ra does not sit on Nut, but floats under her body in his magnificent boat, right under the stars. The head of the supreme god is crowned with a solar disk, although all the deities in such images have completely human features. The image of the goddess Nut in the form of a Heavenly Cow is usually accompanied by the hieroglyphs “heh”, the meaning of which is interpreted as “millions of deities” or “many deities. The deities here probably refer to the stars. It is worth noting that with such an image of Nut, cosmological symbolism often appears. In particular, the gods supporting the legs of the Heavenly Cow do not feel heavy and easily cope with the mission entrusted to them. And the powerful Shu only needs to lightly touch the body of the goddess Nut with his fingers to hold her. According to Egyptian mythology, the twin deities Isis and Osiris loved each other in the womb of their mother, the goddess Nut, so Isis was already pregnant at birth (Herman Melville. Collected Works in three volumes. Volume 1, p. 613).

Osiris - lord of the underworld

Osiris (Osiris) (Egyptian wsjr, ancient Greek ?σιρις, lat. Osiris) - god of rebirth, king of the underworld in ancient Egyptian mythology. Osiris is the god of the productive forces of nature, the ruler of the underworld, the judge in the kingdom of the dead. According to references in ancient Egyptian texts and the story of Plutarch, Osiris was the eldest son of the earth god Heb and the sky goddess Nut, the brother and husband of Isis, the brother of Nephthys, Set, and the father of Horus and Anubis. The tomb of Osiris was located in Abydos. He reigned on earth after the gods Pa, Shu and Geb, he was the fourth of the gods who reigned on earth in primordial times, inheriting the power of his great-grandfather Ra, grandfather Shu and father Geb. Osiris taught the Egyptians agriculture, viticulture and winemaking, mining and processing of copper and gold ore, the art of medicine, the construction of cities, and established the cult of the gods.

God Osiris. Painting, 8th century BC

Isis - the great Mother Goddess

Isis (Isis) (Egyptian js.t, ancient Greek ?σις, lat. Isis) is one of the greatest goddesses of antiquity, who became a model for understanding the Egyptian ideal of femininity and motherhood. Isis's name means "She who is at the throne." She was revered as the sister and wife of Osiris, the mother of Horus, and, accordingly, the Egyptian pharaohs, who were originally considered the earthly incarnations of the falcon-headed god. The symbol of Isis was the royal throne, the symbol of which is often placed on the goddess's head. Since the era of the New Kingdom, the cult of the goddess began to be closely intertwined with the cult of Hathor, as a result of which Isis sometimes wears a dress in the form of a solar disk framed by the horns of a cow. The sacred animal of Isis as a mother goddess was considered the “great white cow of Heliopolis” - the mother of the Memphis bull Apis. She was identified with Demeter, the Great Mother Rhea-Cybele, with Ishtar and Anat. According to ancient tradition, invented sails while searching for her son Harpocrates (Horus). One of the widespread symbols of the goddess is the tet amulet - the “knot of Isis”, or “the blood of Isis”, often made from red minerals - carnelian and jasper. Like Hathor, Isis commands gold, which was considered a model of incorruptibility; on the sign of this metal she is often depicted kneeling. The heavenly manifestations of Isis are, first of all, the star Sopdet, or Sirius, “the lady of the stars,” with the rise of which the Nile overflows from one tear of the goddess; as well as the formidable hippopotamus Isis Hesamut (Isis, the terrible mother) in the guise of the constellation Ursa Major, keeping the leg of the dismembered Seth in the heavens with the help of her companions - crocodiles. Also, Isis, together with Nephthys, can appear in the guise of gazelles guarding the horizon of the heavens; The emblem in the form of two gazelle goddesses was worn on tiaras by the younger wives of the pharaoh in the era of the New Kingdom. Another incarnation of Isis is the goddess Shentait, appearing in the guise of a cow, the patroness of funeral shrouds and weaving, the mistress of the sacred sarcophagus, in which, according to the Osiric ritual of the mysteries, the body of the murdered brother of Osiris is reborn. The direction of the world commanded by the goddess is the west, her ritual objects are the sistrum and the sacred vessel for milk is the situla. Together with Nephthys, Neith and Selket, Isis was the great patroness of the deceased, with her divine wings she protected the western part of the sarcophagi, and commanded the anthropomorphic spirit Imseti, one of the four “sons of Horus”, the patrons of the canopics. Being very ancient, the cult of Isis probably originated from the Nile Delta. Here was one of the most ancient cult centers of the goddess, Hebet, called by the Greeks Iseion (modern Behbeit el-Hagar), which currently lies in ruins.

Goddess Isis. 1300 BC

The famous sanctuary of Isis, which existed until the disappearance of the ancient Egyptian civilization, is located on the island of Philae, near Aswan. Here the goddess, who was revered in many other temples of Nubia, was worshiped until the 6th century AD. e., at a time when the rest of Egypt had already been Christianized. Other centers of veneration of the goddess were located throughout Egypt; the most famous of them are Koptos, where Isis was considered the wife of the god Min, lord of the eastern desert; Dendera, where the sky goddess Nut gave birth to Isis, and, of course, Abydos, in whose sacred triad the goddess was included along with Osiris and Horus.

Set is the god of sandstorms, foreign lands and the patron of foreigners,
originally the protector of the sun god Ra

Set (Seth , Sutekh , Suta , Networks Egypt Stẖ) - in ancient Egyptian mythology, the god of rage, sandstorms, destruction, chaos, war and death. The god of the deserts, that is, “foreign countries,” the personification of the evil principle, the brother and murderer of Osiris, one of the four children of the earth god Geb and Nut, the goddess of the sky. Revered since pre-dynastic times. Originally: protector of the sun-Ra from Apophis, lord of military valor and courage. After the era of Narmer and especially the Ptolemies, he was demonized: the patron of countries far from the Nile and foreigners, world evil, the desert, close to Apep, an antagonist in the dualism of Set and Osiris-Horus. Set also embodied the evil principle - as the deity of the merciless desert, the god of foreigners: he cut down sacred trees, ate the sacred cat of the goddess Bast, etc. Similar metamorphoses were reflected in the meaning of the name Seth. The patron of royal power, his name is in the titles of the pharaohs of the 2nd dynasty (the combination of the names Set and Horus means “king”) and in the names of the pharaohs of the 19th dynasty. Later, the hieroglyph “beast of Set” was the determiner of the words “wild, evil, ferocious.” Set is depicted, as a rule, with long ears, a red mane and red eyes (the color of death, that is, desert sand, although his image can be found in a completely different way). There are images in the form of various animals, but there is no exact confirmation that this is Seth. There is a well-known myth about Seth, who spat in the eyes of Horus, taking the form of a black pig. Because of this, pigs were considered unclean (despite the fact that in ancient times there were images of Nut in the form of a pig with star piglets). The cult of Set flourished in Ombos (near Naqada), Kom Ombos, Gipsel, the oases of Dakhla and Kharga, and especially in the northeastern Nile Delta. The oracle of Set existed in the oasis of Dakhla until the XXII dynasty. Although already during the 26th dynasty this god became a clear personification of evil. In Greek mythology, Set was identified with Typhon, the dragon-headed serpent, and was considered the son of Gaia and Tartarus.

Nephthys (Greek Νέφθυς, Egyptian Nbt-hat = "mistress of the house"), Nebetkhet (ancient Egyptian “Lady of the Abode”) - in Egyptian mythology, the youngest of the children of Heb and Nut. Goddess of the Ennead, death, the underworld, healing, creation, sexuality, arousal, protector of the dead, patroness of the archives of the reigning house of the pharaohs. Symbolizes inferiority, passivity, infertile lands. She was depicted as a woman with a hieroglyph of her name on her head (a house with a construction basket on top). She was considered and revered as the wife of Set, but, judging by the texts, she had very little connection with him. Its essence is almost not revealed in Egyptian religious literature. In mythological texts, however, Nephthys appears together with her sister Isis in the mysteries of Osiris and in all funeral magical rites. She, along with Isis, mourns Osiris, participates in the search for his body, guards his mummy, standing at the head of his bed. Both sisters meet the deceased near the eastern sky. Nephthys was Ra's companion during his night voyage through underground waters. Nephthys, whose name is pronounced Nebethet in Egyptian, was considered by some authors as the goddess of death, and by others as an aspect of Black Isis. Nephthys was also sometimes called the Lady of the Scrolls and was credited with the authorship of lamentations and other hymns. In this guise she was closely associated with Seshat, the patron goddess of the archives of the reigning house of the pharaohs, who determined the duration of their reign. The special time of day for Nephthys was the predawn and sunset twilight. She was believed to have been born in Sekhem, which was the center of her cult. Plutarch described Nephthys as “the mistress of all that is unmanifest and immaterial, while Isis rules over all that is manifest and material.” Despite the connection with Lower World, Nephthys bore the title of "Goddess of creation who lives in everything." She was also considered the goddess of sexuality and the female counterpart of the ever-horny god Ming. In Mendes, in the Nile Delta region, she was revered as the goddess of healing. Nephthys was often depicted together with Isis as her opposite and at the same time as her complement, symbolizing inferiority, passivity, and infertile lands. According to the tales of the Westcar papyrus, Nephthys, together with Isis, Khnum and Heket, helps the woman in labor. Sometimes, together with Isis, she appears in the guise of one of the falcons sitting at the feet and head of the bed with the body of the deceased. In the era of the New Kingdom, Nephthys, as one of the four great goddesses-protectors of the deceased, was often depicted on royal sarcophagi, on the northern wall, directly next to the head of the deceased. According to the Pyramid Texts, Nephthys sails in a night bark (Isis in a day barge). Nephthys, Isis and Selket were identified with falcon faces, so they are often depicted on sarcophagi as winged women, as protectors of the dead. Seshat often acted as a hypostasis of Nephthys.

About Egyptian mythology

The sources for studying the mythology of Ancient Egypt are characterized by incomplete and unsystematic presentation. The nature and origin of many myths are reconstructed on the basis of later texts. The main monuments that reflected the mythological ideas of the Egyptians are various religious texts: hymns and prayers to the gods, records of funeral rites on the walls of tombs. The most significant of them are the “Pyramid Texts” - the oldest texts of funeral royal rituals, carved on the walls of the interior of the pyramids of the pharaohs of the V and VI dynasties of the Old Kingdom (XXVI - XXIII centuries BC); “Texts of sarcophagi”, preserved on sarcophagi from the Middle Kingdom era (XXI - XVIII centuries BC), “Book of the Dead” - compiled from the period of the New Kingdom to the end of Egyptian history.

Egyptian mythology began to take shape in the 6th - 4th millennia BC, long before the emergence of class society. Each region (nome) develops its own pantheon and cult of gods, embodied in heavenly bodies, stones, trees, birds, snakes, etc.

The significance of Egyptian myths is invaluable; they provide valuable material for the comparative study of religious ideas in the Ancient East, and for the study of the ideology of the Greco-Roman world, and for the history of the emergence and development of Christianity.

Ancient temple on the banks of the Nile

Cosmogonic myths

Judging by archaeological data, in the most ancient period of Egyptian history there were no cosmic gods who were credited with the creation of the world. Scholars believe that the first version of this myth arose shortly before the unification of Egypt. According to this version, the sun was born from the union of earth and sky. This personification is undoubtedly older than the cosmogonic ideas of the priests from major religious centers. As usual, the existing myth was not abandoned, and the images of Geb (god of the earth) and Nut (goddess of the sky) as the parents of the sun god Ra were preserved in religion throughout ancient history. Every morning Nut gives birth to the sun and every evening hides it in her womb for the night.

Theological systems that proposed a different version of the creation of the world probably arose at the same time in several major cult centers: Heliopolis, Hermopolis and Memphis. Each of these centers declared its main god to be the creator of the world, who was, in turn, the father of other gods who united around him.
Common to all cosmogonic concepts was the idea that the creation of the world was preceded by the chaos of water immersed in eternal darkness. The beginning of the exit from chaos was associated with the emergence of light, the embodiment of which was the sun. The idea of ​​an expanse of water, from which a small hill appears at first, is closely related to Egyptian realities: it almost exactly corresponds to the annual flood of the Nile, the muddy waters of which covered the entire valley, and then, receding, gradually opened up the land, ready for plowing. In this sense, the act of creating the world was repeated annually.

Egyptian myths about the beginning of the world do not represent a single, coherent story. Often the same mythological events are depicted in different ways, and the gods appear in them in different guises. It is curious that with many cosmogonic plots explaining the creation of the world, extremely little space is devoted to the creation of man. It seemed to the ancient Egyptians that the gods created the world for people. In the written literary heritage of Egypt there are very few direct indications of the creation of the human race; such indications are the exception. Basically, the Egyptians limited themselves to the belief that a person owes his existence to the gods, who expect gratitude from him for this, understood very simply: a person must worship the gods, build and maintain temples, and regularly make sacrifices.

The priests of Heliopolis created their own version of the origin of the world, declaring him the creator of the sun god Ra, identified with other gods - creators Atum and Khepri (“Atum” means “Perfect”, the name “Khepri” can be translated as “The One who arises” or “The One who who brings it into existence"). Atum was usually depicted in the form of a man, Khepri in the form of a scarab, which means that his cult dates back to the time when the gods were given the form of animals. It is curious that Khepri never had her own place of worship. As the personification of the rising sun, he was identical to Atum - the setting sun and Ra - shining during the day. The appearance of a scarab given to it was associated with the belief that this beetle is capable of reproducing on its own, hence its divine creative power. And the sight of a scarab pushing its ball suggested to the Egyptians the image of a god rolling the sun across the sky.

The myth of the creation of the world by Atum, Ra and Khepri is recorded in the Pyramid Texts, and by the time its text was first carved in stone, it had probably been around for a long time and was widely known.

Statue of Ramses II in the Temple of Ptah in Memphis

According to the Pyramid Texts, Ra - Atum - Khepri created himself, emerging from chaos called Nun. Nun, or the Prime Ocean, was usually depicted as an immense primordial expanse of water. Atum, emerging from it, did not find a place where he could stay. That's why he created Ben-ben Hill in the first place. Standing on this island of solid soil, Ra-Atum-Khepri began to create other cosmic gods. Since he was alone, he had to give birth to the first pair of gods himself. From the union of this first couple other gods arose, thus, according to the Heliopolitan myth, the earth and the deities that ruled it appeared. In the ongoing act of creation, from the first pair of gods - Shu (Air) and Tefnut (Moisture) - Geb (Earth) and Nut (Sky) were born. They in turn gave birth to two gods and two goddesses: Osiris, Set, Isis and Nephthys. This is how the Great Nine of Gods arose - the Heliopolis Ennead. This version of the creation of the world was not the only one in Egyptian mythology. According to one legend, the creator of people was, for example, a potter - the god Khnum, who appeared in the guise of a ram - who sculpted them from clay.

Isis with wings

The theologians of Memphis, the largest political and religious center of Ancient Egypt, one of its capitals, included in their myth about the creation of the world many gods belonging to different religious centers, and subordinated them to Ptah as the creator of everything. The Memphis version of cosmogony, compared to the Heliopolitan one, is much more abstract: the world and the gods were created not through a physical act - as in the process of creation by Atum - but exclusively through thought and word.
Sometimes the firmament was represented in the form of a cow with a body covered with stars, but there were also ideas according to which the sky is a water surface, the heavenly Nile, along which the sun flows around the earth during the day. There is also a Nile underground, along which the sun, having descended below the horizon, floats at night. The Nile, flowing through the earth, was personified in the image of the god Hapi, who contributed to the harvest with his beneficial floods. The Nile itself was also inhabited by good and evil deities in the form of animals: crocodiles, hippopotamuses, frogs, scorpions, snakes, etc. The fertility of the fields was controlled by the goddess - the mistress of bins and barns, Renenutet, revered in the form of a snake that appears on the field during the harvest, ensuring the thoroughness of harvesting. The grape harvest depended on the vine god Shai.

Anubis in the form of a dog. Figurine from the tomb of Tutankhamun

Anubis with a mummy. Painting on the wall of Sennejem's tomb

Myths of the mortuary cult

An important role in Egyptian mythology was played by ideas about the afterlife as a direct continuation of the earthly one, but only in the grave. Its necessary conditions are the preservation of the body of the deceased (hence the custom of mummifying corpses), the provision of housing for him (tomb), food (mortuary gifts and sacrifices brought by the living). Later, ideas arise that the dead (that is, their ba, soul) go out into the sunlight during the day, fly up to heaven to the gods, and wander through the underworld (duat). The essence of man was thought of in the inextricable unity of his body, souls (there were believed to be several of them: ka, ba; the Russian word “soul,” however, is not an exact correspondence to the Egyptian concept), name, shadow. A soul wandering through the underworld is in wait for all sorts of monsters, from which you can escape with the help of special spells and prayers. Osiris, together with other gods, administers the afterlife judgment over the deceased (the 125th chapter of the “Book of the Dead” is specially dedicated to him). In the face of Osiris, psychostasia occurs: the weighing of the heart of the deceased on scales balanced by truth (the image of the goddess Maat or her symbols). The sinner was devoured by the terrible monster Amt (a lion with the head of a crocodile), the righteous man came to life for a happy life in the fields of Iaru. Only those who were submissive and patient in earthly life could be acquitted at the trial of Osiris, the one who did not steal, did not encroach on temple property, did not rebel, did not speak evil against the king, etc., as well as “pure in heart” (“I am pure , clean, clean,” the deceased asserts in court).

Goddess Isis with wings

Agricultural myths

The third main cycle of myths of Ancient Egypt is associated with Osiris. The cult of Osiris is associated with the spread of agriculture in Egypt. He is the god of the productive forces of nature (in the Book of the Dead he is called grain, in the Pyramid Texts - the god of the vine), withering and resurrecting vegetation. So, sowing was considered the funeral of the grain - Osiris, the emergence of shoots was perceived as his rebirth, and the cutting of ears during the harvest was perceived as the killing of God. These functions of Osiris are reflected in an extremely widespread legend describing his death and rebirth. Osiris, who reigned happily in Egypt, was treacherously killed by his younger brother, the evil Set. Osiris’s sisters Isis (who is also his wife) and Nephthys search for the body of the murdered man for a long time, and when they find it, they mourn. Isis conceives a son, Horus, from her dead husband. Having matured, Horus enters into a fight with Set; at the court of the gods, with the help of Isis, he achieves recognition of himself as the only rightful heir of Osiris. Having defeated Set, Horus resurrects his father. However, Osiris, not wanting to stay on earth, becomes the king of the underworld and the supreme judge over the dead. The throne of Osiris on earth passes to Horus. In another version of the myth, the resurrection of Osiris is associated with the annual floods of the Nile, which are explained by the fact that Isis, mourning Osiris, after the “night of tears” fills the river with her tears.

God Osiris. Painting of the tomb of Sennejem, 13th century BC

Myths associated with Osiris are reflected in numerous rituals. At the end of the last winter month "Khoyak" - the beginning of the first month of spring "Tibi" the mysteries of Osiris were performed, during which the main episodes of the myth about him were reproduced in dramatic form. Priestesses in the images of Isis and Nephthys depicted the search, mourning and burial of the god. Then the “great battle” took place between Horus and Set. The drama ended with the erection of the “djed” pillar dedicated to Osiris, symbolizing the rebirth of God and, indirectly, of all nature. In the predynastic period, the holiday ended with a struggle between two groups of mystery participants: one of them represented summer, and the other winter. Summer always won (the resurrection of nature). After the unification of the country under the rule of the rulers of Upper Egypt, the nature of the mysteries changes. Now two groups are fighting, one of which is in the clothes of Upper Egypt, and the other - of Lower Egypt. Victory, naturally, remains with the group symbolizing Upper Egypt. During the days of the Mysteries of Osiris, dramatized rites of coronation of the pharaohs were also celebrated. During the mystery, the young pharaoh acted as Horus, the son of Isis, and the deceased king was portrayed as Osiris sitting on the throne.

The character of Osiris as the god of vegetation was reflected in another cycle of rituals. In a special room of the temple, a clay likeness of the figure of Osiris was erected, which was sown with grain. For the holiday of Osiris, his image was covered with green shoots, which symbolized the rebirth of the god. In the drawings one often sees the mummy of Osiris with shoots sprouted from it, which are watered by the priest.

The idea of ​​Osiris as the god of fertility was also transferred to the pharaoh, who was considered the magical focus of the country’s fertility and therefore participated in all the main rituals of an agricultural nature: with the onset of the rise of the Nile, he threw a scroll into the river - a decree that the beginning of the flood had come; the first solemnly began preparing the soil for sowing; cut the first sheaf at the harvest festival, and for the whole country made a thanksgiving sacrifice to the harvest goddess Renenutet and to the statues of the dead pharaohs after completing field work.

Bastet cat

Egyptian myths reflect the peculiarities of the worldview of the inhabitants of the Nile Valley, their ideas about the origin of the world and its structure, which have developed over thousands of years and go back to primitive times. Here are attempts to find the origins of being in the biological act of creation of the gods, the search for the original substance personified by divine couples - the embryo of later teachings about the primary elements of the world, and, finally, as one of the highest achievements of Egyptian theological thought - the desire to explain the origins of the world, people and all culture as a result of the creative power embodied in the word of God.

According to some researchers, there were five thousand gods in Ancient Egypt. Such a huge number of them is due to the fact that each of the numerous local cities had their own gods. Therefore, one should not be surprised at the similarity in the functions of many of them. In our list, whenever possible, we tried not only to give a description of this or that celestial being, but also to indicate the center in which he was most revered. In addition to gods, some monsters, spirits and magical creatures are listed. The list gives the characters in alphabetical order. The names of some gods are designed as hyperlinks leading to detailed articles about them.

10 Main Gods of Ancient Egypt

Amat- a terrible monster with the body and front legs of a lioness, the hind legs of a hippopotamus and the head of a crocodile. It lived in the fiery lake of the underground kingdom of the dead (Duat) and devoured the souls of the dead, who were recognized as unrighteous at the trial of Osiris.

Apis- a black bull with special markings on its skin and forehead, which was worshiped in Memphis and throughout Egypt as the living embodiment of the gods Ptah or Osiris. The living Apis was kept in a special room - Apeion, and the deceased was solemnly buried in the Serapeum necropolis.

Apophis (Apophis)- a huge snake, the personification of chaos, darkness and evil. He lives in the underworld, where every day after sunset the sun god Ra descends. Apep rushes onto Ra's barge to swallow it. The sun and its defenders wage a nightly battle with Apep. The ancient Egyptians also explained solar eclipses as an attempt by the serpent to devour Ra.

Aten- the god of the solar disk (or, rather, sunlight), mentioned back in the Middle Kingdom and proclaimed the main god of Egypt during the religious reform of Pharaoh Akhenaten. Unlike most other representatives of the local pantheon, he was depicted not in a “bestial-human” form, but in the form of a solar circle or ball, from which arms with palms extended towards the earth and people. The meaning of Akhenaten’s reform, apparently, was the transition from a concrete-figurative religion to a philosophical-abstract one. It was accompanied by severe persecution of adherents of former beliefs and was canceled shortly after the death of its initiator.

Atum- the solar god revered in Heliopolis, who created himself from the original chaotic Ocean of Nun. In the middle of this Ocean arose the primordial hill of the earth, from which all the land originated. Having resorted to masturbation, spitting out his own seed, Atum created the first divine couple - the god Shu and the goddess Tefnut, from whom the rest of the Ennead descended (see below). In archaic antiquity, Atum was the main solar god of Heliopolis, but later he was relegated to the background by Ra. Atum began to be revered only as a symbol coming in sun.

Bastet- cat goddess from the city of Bubastis. She personified love, feminine beauty, fertility, and fun. Very close in religious meaning to the goddess Hathor, with whom she was often united.

Demon– (Demons) dwarf demons who are favorable to humans with an ugly face and crooked legs. Kind of good brownies. In Ancient Egypt, figurines of Demons were widespread.

Maat- goddess of universal truth and justice, patroness of moral principles and firm legality. She was depicted as a woman with an ostrich feather on her head. During the judgment in the kingdom of the dead, the soul of the deceased was placed on one scale, and the “feather of Maat” on the other. A soul that turned out to be heavier than a feather was considered unworthy of eternal life with Osiris. She was devoured by the terrible monster Amat (see above).

Mafdet– (lit. “fast running”) goddess of harsh justice, protector of sacred places. It was depicted with the head of a cheetah or in the form of a genet - an animal from the civet family.

Mertseger (Meritseger)- goddess of the dead in Thebes. She was depicted as a snake or a woman with a snake's head.

Meskhenet- the goddess of childbirth, who enjoyed special honor in the city of Abydos.

Min- a god revered as the giver of life and fertility in the city of Koptos. He was depicted in an ithyphallic form (with pronounced male sexual characteristics). The worship of Min was widespread in the early period of Egyptian history, but then he receded into the background in front of his own local Theban variety - Amon.

Mnevis- a black bull that was worshiped as a god in Heliopolis. Reminiscent of Memphis Apis.

Renenutet- a goddess revered in the Fayum as the patroness of harvests. Depicted as a cobra. The grain god Nepri was considered her son.

Sebek- the crocodile-shaped god of the Fayum oasis, where there was a large lake. His functions included managing the water kingdom and ensuring earthly fertility. Sometimes he was revered as a kind, benevolent god, to whom people prayed for help in illnesses and life difficulties; sometimes - like a formidable demon, hostile to Ra and Osiris.

Serket (Selket)- goddess of the dead in the western Nile Delta. Woman with a scorpion on her head.

Sekhmet- (lit. - “mighty”), a goddess with the head of a lioness and a solar disk on her, personifying the heat and scorching heat of the Sun. God's wife Ptah. A formidable avenger who exterminates creatures hostile to the gods. The heroine of the myth about the extermination of people, which the god Ra entrusted to her because of the moral corruption of humanity. Sekhmet killed people with such fury that even Ra, who decided to abandon his intention, could not stop her. Then the gods spilled red beer all over the earth, which Sekhmet began to lick, mistaking it for human blood. Due to intoxication, she was forced to stop her slaughter.

Seshat- goddess of writing and accounting, patroness of scribes. Sister or daughter of the god Thoth. Upon the accession of the pharaoh, she wrote down the upcoming years of his reign on the leaves of the Ished tree. She was depicted as a woman with a seven-pointed star on her head. Seshat's sacred animal was the panther, so she was represented in leopard skin.

Sopdu- a “falcon” god, worshiped in the eastern part of the Nile Delta. Close to Horus, identified with him.

Tatenen- a chthonic god, worshiped in Memphis along with Ptah and sometimes identified with him. His name literally means “rising (i.e., emerging) earth.”

Taurt- a goddess from the city of Oxyrhynchus, depicted as a hippopotamus. Patroness of birth, pregnant women and babies. Drives away evil spirits from homes.

Tefnut- a goddess who, together with her husband, the god Shu, symbolized the space between the earth’s firmament and the firmament. From Shu and Tefnut the earth god Geb and the sky goddess Nut were born.

Wadget- a snake goddess, considered the patroness of Lower (Northern) Egypt.

Upout- the god of the dead with the head of a jackal, revered in the city of Assiut (Lycopolis). By appearance and the meaning strongly resembled Anubis and gradually merged with him in one image.

Phoenix- a magical bird with golden and red feathers, which, according to Egyptian legend, flew to the city of Heliopolis once every 500 years to bury the body of its deceased father in the Temple of the Sun. She personified the soul of the god Ra.

Hapi- god of the Nile River, patron of the harvests provided by its flood. Depicted as a man of blue or Green colour(color of Nile water at different times of the year).

Hathor- goddess of love, beauty, joy and dancing, patroness of childbirth and nurses, “Heavenly Cow”. She personified the wild, elemental power of passion, which could take cruel forms. In such an unbridled form, she was often identified with the lioness goddess Sekhmet. She was depicted with the horns of a cow, inside of which there is the sun.

Hekat- goddess of moisture and rain. Depicted as a frog.

Khepri- one of the three (often recognized as three attributes of the same being) solar gods of Heliopolis. Personified the sun at sunrise. His two “colleagues” are Atum (sun On the Sunset) and Ra (the sun at all other hours of the day). Depicted with the head of a scarab beetle.

Hershef (Herishef)- the main god of the city of Heracleopolis, where he was worshiped as the creator of the world, “whose right eye is the sun, whose left eye is the moon, and whose breath animates everything.”

Khnum- a god revered in the city of Esne as a demiurge who created the world and people on a potter's wheel. Depicted with the head of a ram.

Khonsou- lunar god in Thebes. Son of the god Amun. Together with Amon and his mother, Mut formed the Theban triad of gods. Depicted with a lunar crescent and a disk on his head.

Figurine of Anubis in the form of a man with a head wild dog. OK. 600 BC e. (XXVI Dynasty)

Figurines of Thoth in the form of a baboon and an ibis. OK. 600 BC e. (XXVI Dynasty)

Palette of King Narmer. OK. 3100 BC e. (0 dynasty)

Abydos: Temple of Seti I, relief depicting the king in front of the statue of Amun. OK. 1285 BC e.

The birth of the sun from a lotus flower.

God Amun-Ra

Heaven in the form of a cow

He lures Tefnut to Egypt

Ra in the form of a cat kills the serpent Apep

Cult figurine of a deity in the form of a falcon. OK. 500 BC e. (XXVII Dynasty)

Horus Bekhdetsky killing a crocodile

The priest waters the seedlings that have sprouted from the image of Osiris

Pharaoh cuts the first sheaf at the Harvest Festival

Tomb of Inherkau (TT 359): II burial chamber, the deceased worships a snake. OK. 1140 BC e.

Figurine of the god Thoth in the form of a baboon. 1st millennium BC e.

The sources for studying the mythology of Ancient Egypt are characterized by incomplete and unsystematic presentation. The nature and origin of many myths are reconstructed on the basis of later texts. The main monuments that reflected the mythological ideas of the Egyptians are various religious texts: hymns and prayers to the gods, records of funeral rites on the walls of tombs. The most significant of them are the “Pyramid Texts” - the oldest texts of funeral royal rituals, carved on the walls of the interior of the pyramids of the pharaohs of the V and VI dynasties of the Old Kingdom (26-23 centuries BC); “Texts of sarcophagi”, preserved on sarcophagi from the Middle Kingdom era (21-18 centuries BC), “Book of the Dead” (see figure) - compiled from the period of the New Kingdom to the end of the history of Ancient Egypt (see. Fig.), collections of funeral texts. Mythological ideas are also reflected in such texts as “The Book of the Cow”, “The Book of Vigil Hours”, “Books of the Underworld”, “The Book of Breathing”, “Amduat”, etc. Significant material is provided by records of dramatic mysteries, which were performed during religious holidays and the coronation celebrations of the pharaohs by the priests, and in some cases by the pharaoh himself, who delivered recorded speeches on behalf of the gods. Of great interest are magical texts, conspiracies and spells, which are often based on episodes from legends about the gods, inscriptions on statues, steles, etc., and iconographic material. The source of information about Egyptian mythology is also the works of ancient authors: Herodotus, who visited Egypt in the 5th century. BC e., Plutarch (1st-2nd centuries AD), who left a detailed work “On Isis and Osiris”, etc.

E. m. began to form in the 6th-4th millennium BC. e., long before the emergence of class society (see map). Each region (nome) develops its own pantheon and cult of gods, embodied in heavenly bodies, stones, trees, animals, birds, snakes, etc. The nome itself is also personified in the image of a special deity; for example, the goddess of the Hermopolis nome was considered to be Unut, who was revered in the form of a hare. Later, local deities were usually grouped in the form of a triad led by the demiurge god, the patron of nome, around whom cycles of mythological legends were created (for example, the Theban triad - the sun god Amon, his wife Mut - the goddess of the sky, their son Khonsu - the god of the moon; the Memphian - Ptah, his wife Sekhmet - the goddess of war, their son Nefertum - the god of vegetation, etc.). Female deities, as a rule, had the functions of a mother goddess (especially Mut, Isis). The firmament was usually represented in the form of a cow with a body covered with stars, but sometimes it was personified in the image of a woman - the goddess Nut, who, bending in an arc, touches the ground with the ends of her fingers and toes. “Mighty is your heart, O Great One, who has become the sky. You fill every place with your beauty. The whole earth lies before you - you have embraced it, you have surrounded the earth and all things with your hands,” says the “Pyramid Texts.” There were ideas according to which the sky is a water surface, the heavenly Nile, along which the sun flows around the earth during the day. There is also the Nile underground, along which the sun, having descended beyond the horizon, floats at night. The embodiment of the earth in some nomes was the god Geb, in others - Aker. The Nile, which flowed on earth, was personified in the image of the god Hapi, who contributed to the harvest with his beneficial floods. The Nile itself was also inhabited by good and evil deities in the form of animals: crocodiles, hippopotamuses, frogs, scorpions, snakes, etc. The fertility of the fields was controlled by the goddess - the mistress of bins and barns, Renenutet, revered in the form of a snake that appears on the field during the harvest, ensuring the thoroughness of harvesting. The grape harvest depended on the vine god Shai.

An important role in E. m. was played by the idea of ​​the afterlife as a direct continuation of the earthly one, but only in the grave. Its necessary conditions are the preservation of the body of the deceased (hence the custom of mummifying corpses), the provision of housing for him (tomb), food (mortuary gifts and sacrifices brought by the living). Later, ideas arise that the dead (that is, their ba, soul) come out into the sunlight during the day, fly up to heaven to the gods, and wander through the underworld (duat). The essence of man was thought of in the inextricable unity of his body, souls (there were believed to be several of them: ka, ba; the Russian word “soul,” however, is not an exact correspondence to the Egyptian concept), name, shadow. A soul wandering through the underworld is in wait for all sorts of monsters, from which you can escape with the help of special spells and prayers. Osiris, together with other gods, administers the afterlife judgment over the deceased (the 125th chapter of the “Book of the Dead” is specially dedicated to him). In the face of Osiris, psychostasia occurs: the weighing of the heart of the deceased on scales balanced by truth (the image of the goddess Maat or her symbols). The sinner was devoured by the terrible monster Amt (a lion with the head of a crocodile), the righteous man came to life for a happy life in the fields of Iaru. He could have been acquitted at the trial of Osiris, according to the so-called. “Negative Confession”, contained in the 125th chapter of the “Book of the Dead” (a list of sins that the deceased did not commit), only the submissive and patient in earthly life, the one who did not steal, did not encroach on temple property, did not rebel, did not speak evil against the king, etc., as well as “pure in heart” (“I am pure, pure, pure,” the deceased claims at the trial).

The most characteristic feature of E. m. is the deification of animals, which arose in ancient times and especially intensified in the later periods of Egyptian history. Deities embodied in animals were initially generally considered patrons of hunting; with the domestication of animals, some became deities of pastoralists. The most revered animals - incarnations of various deities included the bull (Apis, Mnevis, Buhis, Bata) and cow (Hathor, Isis), ram (Amon and Khnum), snake, crocodile (Sebek), cat (Bast), lion (incarnation many gods: Tefnut, Sekhmet, Hathor, etc.), jackal (Anubis (see figure)), falcon (Horus), ibis (Thoth; the arrival of the ibis-Thoth in Egypt was associated with the floods of the Nile), etc. Later, anthropomorphization took place pantheon, however, zoomorphic features in the appearance of deities were not completely supplanted and were usually combined with anthropomorphic ones. For example, Bast was depicted as a woman with a cat’s head, Thoth as a man with the head of an ibis, etc. (see figure)

Gods in the forms of bulls and cows were revered in many nomes. One demotic papyrus records the myth that at first all the gods and goddesses were bulls and cows with wool of different colors. Then, at the behest of the supreme god, all the bulls were incarnated into one black bull, and all the cows - into one black cow. The cult of the bull, which in ancient times was probably associated with the veneration of the tribal leader, with the emergence of the ancient Egyptian state began to move closer to the cult of the pharaoh. In early texts the king was called a "calf". On the palette of King Narmer (Menes?) (c. 3000 BC) (see picture) the pharaoh in the form of a bull destroys the fortress of the enemy (Lower Egypt). During the festival of Heb-sed (the thirtieth anniversary of the pharaoh), a bull's tail was tied to the back of the king's clothes. In Memphis, and then throughout Egypt, a black bull with white markings was considered the incarnation of the god Apis. Both good and evil deities were embodied in the form of snakes. The head of all the enemies of the sun, Ra, was considered the huge serpent Apep, personifying darkness and evil. At the same time, the goddess of fertility Renenutet, the goddess - the guardian of the cemeteries Meritseger, Isis and Nephthys - the protectors of Osiris and, therefore, any deceased, the goddess Uto - the patroness of Lower Egypt, the guardian of Ra and the pharaoh, etc., were revered in the form of a snake.

With the development of the ancient Egyptian state, mythological ideas changed. The cults of numerous local deities retained their importance, but the veneration of some of them spread beyond the boundaries of individual nomes and even acquired general Egyptian significance. With the establishment of the Fifth Dynasty of the Old Kingdom, which originated from the city of Heliopolis, the center of the veneration of Ra, he became the main deity of Egypt. During the era of the Middle Kingdom and especially since the reign of the XVIII (Theban) dynasty of the New Kingdom, another sun god, the Theban Amon, was established as the main god (the pharaohs of the Middle and New Kingdoms came from Thebes). Osiris, as the god of the dead, displaces from the end of the 3rd millennium BC. e. ancient god- the patron of the dead Anubis - the jackal always scurrying around the cemetery (who turned into a god - the guardian of the necropolis and the protector of Osiris in the mysteries dedicated to him), as well as the Abydos god of the dead Khentiamenti, having adopted the epithet “first in the West” (that is, “first of the dead”). The rise of new religious and political centers and the development of theological thought were accompanied by a process of fusion and syncretization of gods. For example, Ra, Montu, Ptah, Horus are identified with Amon; with Ra - Atum, Horus, Amon, Osiris, Ptah, etc. (see figure)

The most significant cycles of myths of Ancient Egypt are the myths about the creation of the world, about the solar deities and about Osiris. Initially, it was believed that the world was chaos, a primordial abyss of water - Nun. Out of chaos came the gods who created the earth, sky, people, animals and plants. The first god was the sun, usually acting as a demiurge. One of the myths says that a hill emerged from the waters, on which a lotus flower blossomed (see figure), and from there a child (the sun - Ra) appeared (see figure), “illuminating the earth that was in darkness.” In other myths, the appearance of the sun is associated with an egg laid on a hill that rose from chaos by the bird “the great Gogotun.” There was a myth according to which the sun was born in the form of a calf by a huge cow - the sky. (The Pyramid Texts speak of Ra, the “golden calf born of heaven.” See figure). Along with this, there were ideas about the goddess of the sky - a woman who gives birth to the sun in the morning, swallows it in the evening - as a result, night comes - and the next morning gives birth to it again. (Remnants of the idea that conception occurs from swallowing have also been preserved by folklore: in “The Tale of Two Brothers,” Bata’s unfaithful wife conceived by accidentally swallowing a wood chip). In some myths, male deities are the ancestors. In the Heliopolis myth, the god Atum, identified with the sun - Ra, who emerged from chaos - Nuna (“who created himself”), fertilized himself by swallowing his own seed, and gave birth, spitting out of his mouth, the first gods, a pair of Shu and Tefnut (the god of air and goddess of moisture). They, in turn, produced a second couple: the earth god Heb and the sky goddess Nut, who gave birth to Isis and Nephthys, Osiris and Set. These gods make up the famous Heliopolitan "nine" - the Ennead, revered throughout Egypt and invariably present in religious texts. The gods of the Ennead were considered the first kings of Egypt. In the Memphis myth of the creation of the world, dating back to the Old Kingdom, the local god Ptah is the demiurge. Unlike Atum, Ptah, who created the first eight gods, first conceived creation in his heart (the heart is the “seat of thought”) and called their names with his tongue (Ptah created with “tongue and heart,” that is, thought and word). In the same way, he created the whole world: earth and sky, people, animals, plants, cities, temples, crafts and arts, and established the cults of the gods. In this myth, Ptah is endowed with all the attributes of a king. During the period of the New Kingdom with the rise of the XVIII (Theban) dynasty (16-14 centuries BC), the Theban god Amon, identified with Ratheban, was established as the demiurge, who is called the king of all gods: “Father of fathers and all gods, who raised the sky and who established the land. People came out of his eyes, gods became gods from his mouth. King, may he live, may he live, may he be prosperous, the head of all gods,” says the “Great Hymn to Amon.” The pharaoh, called his son, is identified with Amun. Is another myth sanctifying the divinely approved power of the king, which is given in the political treatise - the teaching of the Heracleopolis king Akhtoy to his son Merikara (X Dynasty, 22nd century BC) also characteristic of the developed Egyptian society? It says that people - “the flock of God” - originated from the body of the creator god (whose name is not mentioned) as his exact likeness. For them, he created heaven and earth out of chaos, air for breathing, animals, birds and fish for food. According to other myths (apparently later), people arose from the tears of Ra or were sculpted on a potter's wheel by Khnum.

The myths about the solar gods are closely related to the myths about the creation of the world. Solar myths reflect two groups of ideas: about the change of seasons (the more ancient ones) and about the struggle of the sun with darkness and evil, personified in the images of monsters and various terrible animals, especially snakes. The myth of the return of the sun's eye, Ra's daughter Tefnut, is associated with the cessation of the sultry wind of the Khamsin desert, which brings drought, and the revival of vegetation. Tefnut (sometimes also called Hathor), having quarreled with Ra, who reigned in Egypt, in the form of a lioness retired to Nubia, to the region of Bugem (apparently, in the minds of the Egyptians, her departure caused the onset of drought). In order for her to return to Egypt, Ra sends Shu and Thoth, who have taken the form of baboons, for her to Nubia. They must return Tefnut to her father, enticing her with singing and dancing (see picture). In an earlier version of the myth, she is lured to Egypt by the hunting god Onuris. Returning, Tefnut marries his brother Shu, which foreshadows the birth of new rich fruits by nature. The holiday of the return of Ra's beloved daughter was also celebrated during the historical period. In Egyptian calendars it was called “the day of the vine and the fullness of the Nile.” The population of Egypt greeted the goddess with songs and dances. “Dendera is filled with intoxicating drink, wonderful wine. Thebes is filled with rejoicing, and all Egypt rejoices. Hathor goes to his house. Oh how sweet it is when she comes!” says the hymn.

At the hottest time of the year, the sun was believed to burn with anger at people. Associated with this idea is the myth of the punishment of people for their sins by order of Ra. When Ra grew old (“his bones were made of silver, his flesh of gold, his hair of pure lapis lazuli”), people ceased to revere the god-king and even “plotted evil deeds against him.” Then Ra gathered a council of the oldest gods, led by the progenitor Nun (or Atum), at which it was decided to punish the people. The sun's eye, the beloved daughter of Ra, called Sekhmet or Hathor in myth, was cast upon them. The goddess in the form of a lioness began to kill and devour people, their destruction took such proportions that Ra decided to stop her. However, the goddess, enraged by the taste of blood, did not calm down. Then they cunningly gave her red beer, and she, drunk, fell asleep and forgot about revenge. Ra, having proclaimed Hebe his deputy on earth, climbed onto the back of a heavenly cow and from there continued to rule the world.

A myth is associated with the period when the heat of the sun weakens, in which Ra is bitten by a snake sent by Isis, who wanted to know his secret name (the Egyptians believed that knowledge of the name gives power over its bearer). Only Isis, “great of enchantment,” “mistress of sorcery,” who knows a conspiracy against a snake bite, can heal Ra. As a reward, she demands that Ra tell her his secret name. Ra fulfills the condition, and Isis heals him.

The struggle of the sun with the forces of darkness is reflected in many myths. One of the most terrible enemies of Ra is the ruler of the underworld, the huge serpent Apep. The myth tells that during the day, Ra sails, illuminating the earth, along the heavenly Nile in the barge Manjet, in the evening he sails to the gates of the underworld, and, having boarded the night barge Mesektet, sails with his retinue along the underground Nile. However, Apep, wanting to prevent Ra's voyage and destroy him, drinks the water of the Nile. A struggle begins between Ra and his entourage and Apep, victory in which invariably remains with Ra: Apep has to spew out the water back. Ra continues on his way so that in the morning he will again appear on the heavenly Nile. There was also a myth according to which the Pa-sun in the form of a red cat under the sacred sycamore tree of the city of Heliopolis defeated a huge serpent (Apopos) and cut off his head (see figure).

One of the most striking and fully preserved myths about the struggle of the sun with enemies is the myth of Mount Bekhdet. Horus of Bekhdet, considered the son of Ra, was himself revered as a solar deity, embodied in the image of a falcon (see figure). In this myth, Horus acts not only as the son of Ra, but also as Ra himself, merging with him into one syncretic deity Ra-Garahuti (Garahuti means “Horus of both horizons”). The myth tells how Horus, accompanying the boat of Ra sailing along the Nile, defeats all the enemies of the great god, who turned into crocodiles and hippopotamuses (see figure). Horus, the son of Isis, joins Horus of Bekhdet, and together they pursue the fleeing enemies. The leader of the enemies, Seth, personifying all monsters, is also destroyed. The origin of the myth dates back to the beginning of copper processing in Egypt (according to one of the texts, Horus struck a crocodile with a harpoon made from an ingot of copper given to him by Isis). During the formation of the ancient Egyptian state, the victory of Horus was interpreted as the victory of Upper Egypt in the struggle for the unification of the country, and Horus began to be revered as the patron god of royal power.

The third main cycle of myths of Ancient Egypt is associated with Osiris. The cult of Osiris is associated with the spread of agriculture in Egypt. He is the god of the productive forces of nature (in the Book of the Dead he is called grain, in the Pyramid Texts he is the god of the vine), withering and resurrecting vegetation. So, sowing was considered the funeral of the grain - Osiris, the emergence of shoots was perceived as his rebirth, and the cutting of ears during the harvest was perceived as the killing of God. These functions of Osiris are reflected in an extremely widespread legend describing his death and rebirth. Osiris, who reigned happily in Egypt, was treacherously killed by his younger brother, the evil Set. Osiris’s sisters Isis (who is also his wife) and Nephthys search for the body of the murdered man for a long time, and when they find it, they mourn. Isis conceives a son, Horus, from her dead husband. Having matured, Horus enters into a fight with Set; at the court of the gods, with the help of Isis, he achieves recognition of himself as the only rightful heir of Osiris. Having defeated Set, Horus resurrects his father. However, Osiris, not wanting to stay on earth, becomes the king of the underworld and the supreme judge of the dead. The throne of Osiris on earth passes to Horus. (In another version of the myth, the resurrection of Osiris is associated with the annual floods of the Nile, which are explained by the fact that Isis, mourning Osiris, after the “night of tears” fills the river with her tears.) Already in the era of the Old Kingdom, living pharaohs are considered as “servants of Horus” (which is intertwined with ideas about Mount Bekhdet) and the successor to his power, and the dead are identified with Osiris. The pharaoh, thanks to a magical funeral rite, comes to life after death in the same way as Osiris came to life. Since the era of the Middle Kingdom, not only the pharaoh, but also every deceased Egyptian has been identified with Osiris, and in funeral texts the name “Osiris” must be placed before the name of the deceased. This “democratization” of ideas about Osiris after the fall of the Old Kingdom is associated with the strengthening of the nobility and the emergence of a layer of wealthy commoners in the end. 3rd millennium BC e. The cult of Osiris becomes the center of all funeral beliefs. It was believed that every Egyptian, like Osiris, would be reborn to an eternal afterlife if all funeral rituals were followed.

Myths associated with Osiris are reflected in numerous rituals. At the end of the last winter month "Khoyak" - the beginning of the first month of spring "Tibi" the mysteries of Osiris were performed, during which the main episodes of the myth about him were reproduced in dramatic form. Priestesses in the images of Isis and Nephthys depicted the search, mourning and burial of the god. Then the “great battle” took place between Horus and Set. The drama ended with the erection of the “djed” pillar dedicated to Osiris, symbolizing the rebirth of God and, indirectly, of all nature. In the predynastic period, the holiday ended with a struggle between two groups of mystery participants: one of them represented summer, and the other winter. Summer always won (the resurrection of nature). After the unification of the country under the rule of the rulers of Upper Egypt, the nature of the mysteries changes. Now two groups are fighting, one of which is in the clothes of Upper Egypt, and the other - of Lower Egypt. Victory, naturally, remains with the group symbolizing Upper Egypt. During the days of the Mysteries of Osiris, dramatized rites of coronation of the pharaohs were also celebrated. During the mystery, the young pharaoh acted as Horus, the son of Isis, and the deceased king was portrayed as Osiris sitting on the throne.

The character of Osiris as the god of vegetation was reflected in another cycle of rituals. In a special room of the temple, a clay likeness of the figure of Osiris was erected, which was sown with grain. For the holiday of Osiris, his image was covered with green shoots, which symbolized the rebirth of the god. In the drawings, the mummy of Osiris is often seen with shoots sprouted from it, which are watered by the priest (see figure).

The idea of ​​Osiris as the god of fertility was also transferred to the pharaoh, who was considered the magical focus of the country’s fertility and therefore participated in all the main rituals of an agricultural nature: with the onset of the rise of the Nile, he threw a scroll into the river - a decree that the beginning of the flood had arrived; the first to solemnly begin preparing the soil for sowing (the mace of the beginning of the Old Kingdom with the image of a pharaoh loosening the ground with a hoe has been preserved); cut the first sheaf at the harvest festival (see picture); for the whole country he made a thanksgiving sacrifice to the goddess of the harvest Renenutet and the statues of the dead pharaohs after completing field work.

The wide spread of the cult of Osiris was also reflected in ideas about Isis. Revered as a loving sister and selflessly devoted wife of Osiris, a caring mother of the baby Horus and at the same time a great sorceress (the myth of Ra and the snake, versions of the myth according to which Osiris was revived by Isis herself, etc.), in the Greco-Roman era she turned into an all-Egyptian great mother goddess, and her cult spread far beyond Egypt (see figure).

R. I. Rubinstein

Many of the characters of E. M. were revered in neighboring countries, in particular in Kush (Ancient Nubia), which was under Egyptian rule for a long time. The state god of Kush was Amun, his oracles elected the king. The cult of Horus developed in numerous local forms, penetrating Kush back in the era of the Old Kingdom. The myths about Isis, Osiris and Horus were popular, and Isis was considered the patroness of royal power (the queen mother was compared and identified with her); the place of Osiris was often taken by local deities (Apedemak, Arensnupis, Dedun, Mandulis, Sebuimeker). Ra, Onuris, Thoth (see figure), Ptah, Khnum, Hapi, Hathor were also revered in Kush (in the myth about her journey to Nubia, the god who returned her to Egypt was identified with Shu Arensnupis). The inhabitants of Kush also adopted many of the Egyptian ideas about the afterlife and the judgment that Osiris administers over the dead.

E. E. Kormysheva (Minkovskaya)

The mythological views of Ancient Egypt were widely reflected in architecture, art, and literature. In and around Egyptian temples there were sculptural images of deities, thought of as “bodies” in which these deities were embodied. The idea that the dead should have a home led to the construction of special tombs: mastabas, pyramids, rock crypts. Tombs and temples were decorated with reliefs and paintings on mythological themes. In case of damage or destruction of the mummified body of the deceased, a portrait statue of him (along with the mummy, intended to be a receptacle for his ba and ka) was placed in the tomb. The paintings and reliefs in the tombs were supposed to create a familiar environment for the deceased: they depicted his home, family members, festivals, servants and slaves in the fields and in workshops, etc. Figurines of servants engaged in various types of agricultural and craft work were also placed in the tombs , serving the deceased. In the burials of the New Kingdom era, the so-called. Ushabti, special figurines, usually in the form of a swaddled mummy. It was believed that the deceased would revive them with the power of magical spells and they would work for him in the afterlife.

Religious and magical literature, which depicted many of the mythological ideas of the Egyptians, had high literary merits. Mythological subjects are widely reflected in fairy tales. For example, in the fairy tale “Snake Island” (“Shipwrecked”) there is a huge snake that can incinerate a person with its breath, but can also save him and predict the future. This image arose under the influence of ideas about snake gods. In another tale, the god Ra appears to Reddedet, the wife of the priest Rauser, in the form of her husband, and from this marriage three twins are born - children of the sun, the founders of a new dynasty of pharaohs. Under the influence of the myth of Osiris, a fairy tale was created about two brothers Bata and Anubis, in which the falsely accused Bata dies and then comes to life again with the help of Anubis (the features of the god Bata, the bull, are also preserved in the image of Bata). In the fairy tale “On Falsehood and Truth,” the younger brother blinds the elder (whose name is Osiris) and takes possession of his goods, but Osiris’s son Horus avenges his father and restores justice. The tale of the wise young man Sa-Osiris (his name means “Son of Osiris”) describes the afterlife, where he leads his father, and the judgment of the dead.

Lit.: Korostovtsev M. A., Religion of Ancient Egypt, M., 1976, Mathieu M. E., Ancient Egyptian myths. [Research and translation of texts with commentary], M., 1956; Frantsov G.P., Scientific atheism, Izbr. works, M., 1972; Bonnet H., Reallexikon der dgyptischen Rehgionsgeschichte, B., 1952; Kees H., Der Götterglaube im Alten Agypten, 2 Aufl., B., 1956; his, Totenglauben und Jenseitsvorstellungen der alten Agypter, B., 1956; Erman A., Die Religion der Agypter, B., 1934; Cerny J., Ancient Egyptian religion, L., ; Vandier J., La religion еgyptienne, P., 1949; Drioton E., La religion йgyptienne, in: Histoire des religions, t. 3, pt. l, P, 1955; Morenz S., Dgyptische Religion, Stuttg., ; Breasted J. H., Development of religion and thought in ancient Egypt, N. Y., 1912.