The ICBM is a very impressive human creation. Huge size, thermonuclear power, column of flame, roar of engines and the menacing roar of launch. However, all this exists only on the ground and in the first minutes of launch. After they expire, the rocket ceases to exist. Further into the flight and to carry out the combat mission, only what remains of the rocket after acceleration is used - its payload.

With long launch ranges, the payload of an intercontinental ballistic missile extends into space for many hundreds of kilometers. It rises into the layer of low-orbit satellites, 1000-1200 km above the Earth, and is located among them for a short time, only slightly lagging behind their general run. And then it begins to slide down along an elliptical trajectory...

A ballistic missile consists of two main parts - the accelerating part and the other for the sake of which the acceleration is started. The accelerating part is a pair or three of large multi-ton stages, filled to capacity with fuel and with engines at the bottom. They give the necessary speed and direction to the movement of the other main part of the rocket - the head. The booster stages, replacing each other in the launch relay, accelerate this warhead in the direction of the area of ​​its future fall.

The head of a rocket is a complex load consisting of many elements. It contains a warhead (one or more), a platform on which these warheads are placed along with all other equipment (such as means of deceiving enemy radars and missile defenses), and a fairing. There is also fuel and compressed gases in the head part. The entire warhead will not fly to the target. It, like the ballistic missile itself earlier, will split into many elements and simply cease to exist as a single whole. The fairing will separate from it not far from the launch area, during the operation of the second stage, and somewhere along the way it will fall. The platform will collapse upon entering the air of the impact area. Only one type of element will reach the target through the atmosphere. Warheads.

Up close, the warhead looks like an elongated cone, a meter or one and a half long, with a base as thick as a human torso. The nose of the cone is pointed or slightly blunt. This cone is a special aircraft whose task is to deliver weapons to the target. We'll come back to warheads later and take a closer look at them.

The head of the “Peacekeeper”, The photographs show the breeding stages of the American heavy ICBM LGM0118A Peacekeeper, also known as MX. The missile was equipped with ten 300 kt multiple warheads. The missile was withdrawn from service in 2005.

Pull or push?

In a missile, all warheads are located in the so-called breeding stage, or “bus”. Why bus? Because, having first freed itself from the fairing, and then from the last booster stage, the propagation stage carries the warheads, like passengers, along given stops, along their trajectories, along which the deadly cones will disperse to their targets.

The “bus” is also called the combat stage, because its work determines the accuracy of pointing the warhead to the target point, and therefore combat effectiveness. The propagation stage and its operation is one of the biggest secrets in a rocket. But we will still take a slight, schematic look at this mysterious step and its difficult dance in space.

The breeding step has different forms. Most often, it looks like a round stump or a wide loaf of bread, on which warheads are mounted on top, points forward, each on its own spring pusher. The warheads are pre-positioned at precise separation angles (at the missile base, manually, using theodolites) and point in different directions, like a bunch of carrots, like the needles of a hedgehog. The platform, bristling with warheads, occupies a given position in flight, gyro-stabilized in space. And at the right moments, warheads are pushed out of it one by one. They are ejected immediately after completion of acceleration and separation from the last accelerating stage. Until (you never know?) they shot down this entire undiluted hive with anti-missile weapons or something on board the breeding stage failed.

But this happened before, at the dawn of multiple warheads. Now breeding presents a completely different picture. If previously the warheads “stuck” forward, now the stage itself is in front along the course, and the warheads hang from below, with their tops back, upside down, like bats. The “bus” itself in some rockets also lies upside down, in a special recess in the upper stage of the rocket. Now, after separation, the breeding stage does not push, but drags the warheads along with it. Moreover, it drags, resting against its four “paws” placed crosswise, deployed in front. At the ends of these metal legs are rearward-facing thrust nozzles for the expansion stage. After separation from the accelerating stage, the “bus” very accurately, precisely sets its movement in the beginning of space with the help of its own powerful guidance system. He himself occupies the exact path of the next warhead - its individual path.

Then the special inertia-free locks that held the next detachable warhead are opened. And not even separated, but simply now no longer connected with the stage, the warhead remains motionless hanging here, in complete weightlessness. The moments of her own flight began and flowed by. Like one individual berry next to a bunch of grapes with other warhead grapes not yet plucked from the stage by the breeding process.

Fiery Ten, K-551 “Vladimir Monomakh” is a Russian strategic nuclear submarine (Project 955 “Borey”), armed with 16 solid-fuel Bulava ICBMs with ten multiple warheads.

Delicate movements

Now the task of the stage is to crawl away from the warhead as delicately as possible, without disturbing its precisely set (targeted) movement with gas jets of its nozzles. If a supersonic jet of a nozzle hits a separated warhead, it will inevitably add its own additive to the parameters of its movement. Over the subsequent flight time (which is half an hour to fifty minutes, depending on the launch range), the warhead will drift from this exhaust “slap” of the jet half a kilometer to a kilometer sideways from the target, or even further. It will drift without obstacles: there is space, they slapped it - it floated, not being held back by anything. But is a kilometer sideways accurate today?

To avoid such effects, it is precisely the four upper “legs” with engines that are spaced apart to the sides that are needed. The stage is, as it were, pulled forward on them so that the exhaust jets go to the sides and cannot catch the warhead separated by the belly of the stage. All thrust is divided between four nozzles, which reduces the power of each individual jet. There are other features too. For example, if there is a donut-shaped propulsion stage (with a void in the middle - with this hole it is put on the rocket’s upper stage, like wedding ring finger) of the Trident-II D5 missile, the control system determines that the separated warhead still falls under the exhaust of one of the nozzles, then the control system turns off this nozzle. Silences the warhead.

The stage, gently, like a mother from the cradle of a sleeping child, fearing to disturb his peace, tiptoes away into space on the three remaining nozzles in low thrust mode, and the warhead remains on the aiming trajectory. Then the “donut” stage with the cross of the thrust nozzles is rotated around the axis so that the warhead comes out from under the zone of the torch of the switched off nozzle. Now the stage moves away from the remaining warhead on all four nozzles, but for now also at low throttle. When a sufficient distance is reached, the main thrust is turned on, and the stage vigorously moves into the area of ​​the target trajectory of the next warhead. There it slows down in a calculated manner and again very precisely sets the parameters of its movement, after which it separates the next warhead from itself. And so on - until it lands each warhead on its trajectory. This process is fast, much faster than you read about it. In one and a half to two minutes, the combat stage deploys a dozen warheads.

The abysses of mathematics

Intercontinental ballistic missile R-36M Voevoda Voevoda,

What has been said above is quite enough to understand how a warhead’s own path begins. But if you open the door a little wider and look a little deeper, you will notice that today the rotation in space of the breeding stage carrying the warhead is an area of ​​​​application of quaternion calculus, where the on-board attitude control system processes the measured parameters of its movement with a continuous construction on board the orientation quaternion. A quaternion is such a complex number (above the field of complex numbers lies a flat body of quaternions, as mathematicians would say in their precise language of definitions). But not with the usual two parts, real and imaginary, but with one real and three imaginary. In total, the quaternion has four parts, which, in fact, is what the Latin root quatro says.

The dilution stage does its job quite low, immediately after the boost stages are turned off. That is, at an altitude of 100-150 km. And there is also the influence of gravitational anomalies on the Earth’s surface, heterogeneities in the even gravitational field surrounding the Earth. Where are they from? From uneven terrain, mountain systems, occurrence of rocks of different densities, oceanic depressions. Gravitational anomalies either attract the stage to themselves with additional attraction, or, conversely, slightly release it from the Earth.

In such irregularities, the complex ripples of the local gravitational field, the breeding stage must place the warheads with precision accuracy. To do this, it was necessary to create a more detailed map of the Earth's gravitational field. It is better to “explain” the features of a real field in systems of differential equations that describe precise ballistic motion. These are large, capacious (to include details) systems of several thousand differential equations, with several tens of thousands of constant numbers. And the gravitational field itself at low altitudes, in the immediate near-Earth region, is considered as a joint attraction of several hundred point masses of different “weights” located near the center of the Earth in a certain order. This achieves a more accurate simulation of the Earth's real gravitational field along the rocket's flight path. And more accurate operation of the flight control system with it. And also... but that's enough! - Let's not look further and close the door; What has been said is enough for us.

Flight without warheads

The photo shows the launch of a Trident II intercontinental missile (USA) from a submarine. Currently, Trident is the only family of ICBMs whose missiles are installed on American submarines. The maximum throwing weight is 2800 kg.

The breeding stage, accelerated by the missile towards the same geographical area where the warheads should fall, continues its flight along with them. After all, she can’t fall behind, and why should she? After disengaging the warheads, the stage urgently attends to other matters. She moves away from the warheads, knowing in advance that she will fly a little differently from the warheads, and not wanting to disturb them. The breeding stage also devotes all its further actions to warheads. This maternal desire to protect the flight of her “children” in every possible way continues for the rest of her short life.

Short, but intense.

ICBM payload most The flight is carried out in space object mode, rising to a height three times the height of the ISS. The trajectory of enormous length must be calculated with extreme accuracy.

After the separated warheads, it is the turn of other wards. The most amusing things begin to fly away from the steps. Like a magician, she releases into space a lot of inflating balloons, some metal things that resemble open scissors, and objects of all sorts of other shapes. Durable balloons sparkle brightly in the cosmic sun with the mercury shine of a metallized surface. They are quite large, some shaped like warheads flying nearby. Their aluminum-coated surface reflects a radar signal from a distance in much the same way as the warhead body. Enemy ground radars will perceive these inflatable warheads as well as real ones. Of course, in the very first moments of entering the atmosphere, these balls will fall behind and immediately burst. But before that, they will distract and load the computing power of ground-based radars - both long-range detection and guidance of anti-missile systems. In ballistic missile interceptor parlance, this is called “complicating the current ballistic environment.” And the entire heavenly army, inexorably moving towards the area of ​​impact, including real and false warheads, balloons, dipole and corner reflectors, this whole motley flock is called “multiple ballistic targets in a complicated ballistic environment.”

The metal scissors open up and become electric dipole reflectors - there are many of them, and they well reflect the radio signal of the long-range missile detection radar beam probing them. Instead of the ten desired fat ducks, the radar sees a huge blurry flock of small sparrows, in which it is difficult to make out anything. Devices of all shapes and sizes reflect different wavelengths.

In addition to all this tinsel, the stage can theoretically itself emit radio signals that interfere with the targeting of enemy anti-missile missiles. Or distract them with yourself. In the end, you never know what she can do - after all, a whole stage is flying, large and complex, why not load it with a good solo program?

Last segment

America's underwater sword, the Ohio-class submarines are the only class of missile-carrying submarines in service with the United States. Carries on board 24 ballistic missiles with MIRVed Trident-II (D5). The number of warheads (depending on power) is 8 or 16.

However, from an aerodynamic point of view, the stage is not a warhead. If that one is a small and heavy narrow carrot, then the stage is an empty, vast bucket, with echoing empty fuel tanks, a large, streamlined body and a lack of orientation in the flow that is beginning to flow. With its wide body and decent windage, the stage responds much earlier to the first blows of the oncoming flow. The warheads also unfold along the flow, piercing the atmosphere with the least aerodynamic drag. The step leans into the air with its vast sides and bottoms as necessary. It cannot fight the braking force of the flow. Its ballistic coefficient - an “alloy” of massiveness and compactness - is much worse than a warhead. Immediately and strongly it begins to slow down and lag behind the warheads. But the forces of the flow increase inexorably, and at the same time the temperature heats up the thin, unprotected metal, depriving it of its strength. The remaining fuel boils merrily in the hot tanks. Finally, the hull structure loses stability under the aerodynamic load that compresses it. Overload helps to destroy the bulkheads inside. Crack! Hurry! The crumpled body is immediately engulfed by hypersonic shock waves, tearing the stage into pieces and scattering them. After flying a little in the condensing air, the pieces again break into smaller fragments. Remaining fuel reacts instantly. Flying fragments of structural elements made of magnesium alloys are ignited by hot air and instantly burn with a blinding flash, similar to a camera flash - it’s not for nothing that magnesium was set on fire in the first photo flashes!

Time does not stand still.

Raytheon, Lockheed Martin and Boeing have completed the first and key phase associated with the development of a defense Exoatmospheric Kill Vehicle (EKV), which is integral part mega-project - developed by the Pentagon global missile defense, based on anti-missiles, each of which is capable of carrying SEVERAL kinetic interception warheads (Multiple Kill Vehicle, MKV) to destroy ICBMs with multiple warheads, as well as “false” warheads

"The milestone is an important part of the concept development phase," Raytheon said, adding that it is "consistent with MDA plans and is the basis for further concept approval planned for December."

It is noted that Raytheon in this project uses the experience of creating EKV, which is involved in the American global missile defense system that has been operating since 2005 - the Ground-Based Midcourse Defense (GBMD), which is designed to intercept intercontinental ballistic missiles and their combat units in outer space outside the Earth's atmosphere. Currently, 30 interceptor missiles are deployed in Alaska and California to protect the continental United States, and another 15 missiles are planned to be deployed by 2017.

The transatmospheric kinetic interceptor, which will become the basis for the currently being created MKV, is the main destructive element of the GBMD complex. A 64-kilogram projectile is launched by an anti-missile missile into outer space, where it intercepts and contact destroys an enemy warhead thanks to an electro-optical guidance system, protected from extraneous light by a special casing and automatic filters. The interceptor receives target designation from ground-based radars, establishes sensory contact with the warhead and aims at it, maneuvering in outer space using rocket engines. The warhead is hit by a frontal ram on a collision course with a combined speed of 17 km/s: the interceptor flies at a speed of 10 km/s, the ICBM warhead at a speed of 5-7 km/s. The kinetic energy of the impact, amounting to about 1 ton of TNT equivalent, is enough to completely destroy a warhead of any conceivable design, and in such a way that the warhead is completely destroyed.

In 2009, the United States suspended the development of a program to combat multiple warheads due to the extreme complexity of producing the breeding unit mechanism. However, this year the program was revived. According to Newsader analytical data, this is due to increased aggression on the part of Russia and corresponding threats to use nuclear weapons, which were repeatedly expressed by senior officials of the Russian Federation, including President Vladimir Putin himself, who, in a commentary on the situation with the annexation of Crimea, openly admitted that he allegedly was ready to use nuclear weapons in a possible conflict with NATO (the latest events related to the destruction of a Russian bomber by the Turkish Air Force cast doubt on Putin’s sincerity and suggest a “nuclear bluff” on his part). Meanwhile, as is known, it is Russia that is the only state in the world that allegedly possesses ballistic missiles with multiple nuclear warheads, including “false” (distracting) ones.

Raytheon said that their brainchild will be capable of destroying several objects at once using an improved sensor and other latest technologies. According to the company, during the time that passed between the implementation of the Standard Missile-3 and EKV projects, the developers managed to achieve a record performance in intercepting training targets in space - more than 30, which exceeds the performance of competitors.

Russia is also not standing still.

According to open sources, this year the first launch of the new RS-28 Sarmat intercontinental ballistic missile will take place, which should replace the previous generation of RS-20A missiles, known according to NATO classification as “Satan”, but in our country as “Voevoda” .

The RS-20A ballistic missile (ICBM) development program was implemented as part of the “guaranteed retaliatory strike” strategy. President Ronald Reagan's policy of exacerbating the confrontation between the USSR and the USA forced him to take adequate response measures to cool the ardor of the "hawks" from the presidential administration and the Pentagon. American strategists believed that they were quite capable of ensuring such a level of protection for their country’s territory from an attack by Soviet ICBMs that they could simply not give a damn about the international agreements reached and continue to improve their own nuclear potential and missile defense systems (ABM). “Voevoda” was just another “asymmetric response” to Washington’s actions.

The most unpleasant surprise for the Americans was the rocket's fissile warhead, which contained 10 elements, each of which carried an atomic charge with a capacity of up to 750 kilotons of TNT. For example, bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki with a yield of “only” 18-20 kilotons. Such warheads were capable of penetrating the then-American missile defense systems; in addition, the infrastructure supporting missile launching was also improved.

The development of a new ICBM is intended to solve several problems at once: first, to replace the Voyevoda, whose capabilities to overcome modern American missile defense (BMD) have decreased; secondly, to solve the problem of dependence of domestic industry on Ukrainian enterprises, since the complex was developed in Dnepropetrovsk; finally, give an adequate response to the continuation of the missile defense deployment program in Europe and the Aegis system.

According to The National Interest, the Sarmat missile will weigh at least 100 tons, and the mass of its warhead can reach 10 tons. This means, the publication continues, that the rocket will be able to carry up to 15 multiple thermonuclear warheads.
“The Sarmat’s range will be at least 9,500 kilometers. When it is put into service, it will be the largest missile in world history,” the article notes.

According to reports in the press, the head enterprise for the production of the rocket will be NPO Energomash, and the engines will be supplied by Perm-based Proton-PM.

The main difference between Sarmat and Voevoda is the ability to launch warheads into a circular orbit, which sharply reduces range restrictions; with this launch method, you can attack enemy territory not along the shortest trajectory, but along any and from any direction - not only through the North Pole , but also through Yuzhny.

In addition, the designers promise that the idea of ​​maneuvering warheads will be implemented, which will make it possible to counter all types of existing anti-missile missiles and promising systems using laser weapons. Patriot anti-aircraft missiles, which form the basis of the American missile defense system, cannot yet effectively combat actively maneuvering targets flying at speeds close to hypersonic.
Maneuvering warheads promise to become so effective weapon, against which there are currently no countermeasures of equal reliability, that the option of creating an international agreement prohibiting or significantly limiting this type of weapons cannot be ruled out.

Thus, together with sea-based missiles and mobile railway complexes, Sarmat will become an additional and sufficient effective factor containment.

If this happens, efforts to deploy missile defense systems in Europe may be in vain, since the missile's launch trajectory is such that it is unclear where exactly the warheads will be aimed.

It is also reported that the missile silos will be equipped with additional protection against close explosions of nuclear weapons, which will significantly increase the reliability of the entire system.

The first prototypes of the new rocket have already been built. The start of launch tests is scheduled for this year. If the tests are successful, serial production of Sarmat missiles will begin, and they will enter service in 2018.

The information agency "Arms of Russia" continues to publish ratings of weapons and military equipment. This time, experts assessed Russian ground-based intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and foreign countries.">

4:57 / 10.02.12

Ground-based intercontinental ballistic missiles of Russia and foreign countries (rating)

The Russian Arms information agency continues to publish ratings of weapons and military equipment. This time, experts assessed ground-based intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) from Russia and foreign countries.

The comparative assessment was carried out according to the following parameters:

• firepower (number of warheads (WB), total power of WB, maximum firing range, accuracy - CEP)
• constructive perfection (launch mass of the rocket, overall characteristics, relative density of the rocket - the ratio of the launch mass of the rocket to the volume of the transport and launch container (TPC))
• operation (basing method - mobile-ground missile system(PGRK) or placement in a silo launcher (SPU), time of the interregulatory period, possibility of extending the warranty period)

The sum of points for all parameters gave an overall assessment of the compared MDB. It was taken into account that each ICBM taken from the statistical sample, compared with other ICBMs, was evaluated based on the technical requirements of its time.

The variety of ground-based ICBMs is so great that the sample includes only ICBMs that are currently in service and have a range of more than 5,500 km - and only China, Russia and the United States have such (Great Britain and France have abandoned ground-based ICBMs , placing them only on submarines).

Intercontinental ballistic missiles

RS-20A SS-18 Satan	Russia
RS-20B S S-18 Satan	Russia
	China
	China

Based on the number of points scored, the first four places were taken by:

1. Russian ICBM R-36M2 “Voevoda” (15A18M, START code - RS-20V, according to NATO classification - SS-18 Satan (Russian: “Satan”))

• Adopted into service, 1988
• Fuel - liquid
• Number of accelerating stages - 2
• Length, m - 34.3
• Maximum diameter, m - 3.0
• Launch weight, t - 211.4
• Start - mortar (for silos)
• Throwing weight, kg - 8,800
• Flight range, km -11,000 - 16,000
• Number of BB, power, ct -10Х550-800
• KVO, m - 400 - 500

Total points for all parameters - 28.5

The most powerful ground-based ICBM is the 15A18M missile of the R-36M2 "Voevoda" complex (designation of the Strategic Missile Forces RS-20V, NATO designation SS-18mod4 "Satan". The R-36M2 complex has no equal in its technological level and combat capabilities.

The 15A18M is capable of carrying platforms with several dozen (from 20 to 36) individually targeted nuclear MIRVs, as well as maneuvering warheads. It is equipped with a missile defense system, which allows one to break through layered missile defense systems using weapons based on new physical principles. R-36M2 are on duty in ultra-protected silo launchers, which are resistant to shock waves at a level of about 50 MPa (500 kg/sq. cm).

The design of the R-36M2 includes the ability to launch directly during a period of massive enemy nuclear impact on the positional area and blocking the positional area with high-altitude nuclear explosions. The missile has the highest resistance among ICBMs to nuclear weapons.

The rocket is covered with a dark heat-protective coating, making it easier to pass through the cloud of a nuclear explosion. It is equipped with a system of sensors that measure neutron and gamma radiation, register dangerous levels and, while the missile passes through the cloud of a nuclear explosion, turn off the control system, which remains stabilized until the missile leaves the danger zone, after which the control system turns on and corrects the trajectory.

A strike from 8-10 15A18M missiles (fully equipped) ensured the destruction of 80% industrial potential USA and most of the population.

2. US ICBM LGM-118A “Peacekeeper” - MX

Main tactical and technical characteristics (TTX):

• Adopted into service, 1986
• Fuel - solid
• Number of accelerating stages - 3
• Length, m - 21.61
• Maximum diameter, m - 2.34
• Launch weight, t - 88.443
• Start - mortar (for silos)
• Throwing weight, kg - 3,800
• Flight range, km - 9,600
• Number of BB, power, ct - 10X300
• KVO, m - 90 - 120

Total points for all parameters - 19.5

The most powerful and advanced American ICBM, the three-stage solid-propellant MX missile, was equipped with ten with a yield of 300 kt each. It had increased resistance to the effects of nuclear weapons and had the ability to overcome the existing missile defense system, limited by an international treaty.

The MX had the greatest capabilities among ICBMs in terms of accuracy and ability to hit a heavily protected target. At the same time, the MXs themselves were based only in the improved silo launchers of the Minuteman ICBMs, which were inferior in security to the Russian silo launchers. According to American experts, the MX was 6-8 times superior in combat capabilities to the Minuteman-3.

A total of 50 MX missiles were deployed, which were on alert in a state of 30-second readiness for launch. Removed from service in 2005, the missiles and all equipment of the position area are being preserved. Options for using MX to launch high-precision non-nuclear strikes are being considered.

3. Russian ICBM PC-24 "Yars" - Russian solid-fuel mobile-based intercontinental ballistic missile with a multiple warhead

Main tactical and technical characteristics (TTX):

• Adopted for service, 2009
• Fuel - solid
• Number of accelerating stages - 3
• Length, m - 22.0
• Maximum diameter, m - 1.58
• Launch weight, t - 47.1
• Start - mortar
• Throwing weight, kg - 1,200
• Flight range, km - 11,000
• Number of BB, power, ct - 4X300
• KVO, m - 150

The total points for all parameters is 17.7

Structurally, the RS-24 is similar to the Topol-M and has three stages. Differs from RS-12M2 "Topol-M":

• new platform for breeding blocks with warheads
• re-equipment of some part of the missile control system
• increased payload

The missile enters service in a factory transport and launch container (TPC), in which it spends its entire service. The body of the missile product is coated with special compounds to reduce the effects of a nuclear explosion. Probably, an additional composition was applied using stealth technology.

Guidance and control system (GCS) is an autonomous inertial control system with an on-board digital computer (OND), probably using astro correction. The proposed developer of the control system is the Moscow Research and Production Center for Instrument Engineering and Automation.

The use of the active trajectory section has been reduced. To improve the speed characteristics at the end of the third stage, it is possible to use a turn with the direction of zero increment of distance until the last stage's fuel reserve is fully exhausted.

The instrumentation compartment is completely sealed. The rocket is capable of overcoming the cloud of a nuclear explosion at launch and performing a program maneuver. For testing, the rocket will most likely be equipped with a telemetry system - the T-737 Triad receiver and indicator.

To counter missile defense systems, the missile is equipped with a countermeasures system. From November 2005 to December 2010, tests of anti-missile defense systems were carried out using Topol and K65M-R missiles.

4. Russian ICBM UR-100N UTTH (GRAU index - 15A35, START code - RS-18B, according to NATO classification - SS-19 Stiletto (English “Stiletto”))

Main tactical and technical characteristics (TTX):

• Adopted into service, 1979
• Fuel - liquid
• Number of accelerating stages - 2
• Length, m - 24.3
• Maximum diameter, m - 2.5
• Launch weight, t - 105.6
• Start - gas-dynamic
• Throwing weight, kg - 4,350
• Flight range, km - 10,000
• Number of BB, power, ct - 6Х550
• KVO, m - 380

The total score for all parameters is 16.6

ICBM 15A35 is a two-stage intercontinental ballistic missile, made according to the “tandem” design with a sequential separation of stages. The rocket is distinguished by a very dense layout and virtually no “dry” compartments. According to official data, as of July 2009, the Russian Strategic Missile Forces had 70 deployed 15A35 ICBMs.

The last division was previously in the process of liquidation, but by decision of the President of the Russian Federation D.A. Medvedev in November 2008, the liquidation process was terminated. The division will continue to be on duty with the 15A35 ICBM until it is re-equipped with “new missile systems” (apparently either Topol-M or RS-24).

Apparently, in the near future, the number of 15A35 missiles on combat duty will be further reduced until it stabilizes at a level of about 20-30 units, taking into account purchased missiles. The UR-100N UTTH missile system is extremely reliable - 165 test and combat training launches were carried out, of which only three were unsuccessful.

The American magazine of the Air Force Rocketry Association called the UR-100N UTTH missile “one of the most outstanding technical developments of the Cold War.” The first complex, still with UR-100N missiles, was put on combat duty in 1975 with a warranty period of 10 years. During its creation, all the best design solutions worked out on previous generations of "hundreds" were implemented.

The high reliability indicators of the missile and the complex as a whole, then achieved during the operation of the improved complex with the UR-100N UTTH ICBM, allowed the military-political leadership of the country to set before the RF Ministry of Defense, the General Staff, the command of the Strategic Missile Forces and the lead developer represented by NPO Mashinostroeniya the task of gradually extending the service life of the complex with 10 to 15, then to 20, 25 and finally to 30 and beyond.

Missile weapons are the dominant direction in the military defense of all leading powers, which is why it is so important to know: ICBMs - what are they? Today, intercontinental ballistic missiles are the most powerful means of deterring the threat of nuclear attack.

ICBM - what is it?

The guided intercontinental ballistic missile has a surface-to-surface class and a flight range of more than 5,500 km. Its equipment is nuclear warheads, which are designed to destroy extremely important strategic objects of a potential enemy located on other continents. This type of missiles possible ways bases are divided into those launched from:

• ground stations - this method of basing is currently considered obsolete and has not been used since 1960);
• stationary silo missile launcher (SPU). The most highly protected launch complex from a nuclear explosion and other damaging factors;
• mobile portable units based on a wheeled chassis. This and subsequent bases are the most difficult to detect, but have size limitations for the missiles themselves;
• railway installations;
• submarines

ICBM flight altitude

One of the most important characteristics for the accuracy of hitting a target is the flight altitude of an intercontinental ballistic missile. The launch is carried out in a strictly vertical position of the rocket, for accelerated exit from dense atmospheric layers. Next, there is a tilt towards the programmed target. Moving along a given trajectory, the rocket at its highest point can reach an altitude of 1000 km or more.

ICBM flight speed

The accuracy of hitting an enemy target largely depends on the speed correctly set at the initial stage, during launch. At the highest point of flight, the ICBM has the lowest speed; when it deviates towards the target, the speed increases. Most of the rocket travels by inertia, but in those layers of the atmosphere where there is practically no air resistance. When descending to contact the target, the speed of an intercontinental ballistic missile can be about 6 km per second.

ICBM testing

The first country to start creating a ballistic missile was Germany, but there is no reliable data on possible tests, work was suspended at the stage of developing drawings and creating sketches. Subsequently, tests of the intercontinental ballistic missile were carried out in the following chronological order:

1. The USA launched a prototype of the MBA in 1948.
2. In 1957, the USSR successfully launched a two-stage Semerka rocket.
3. The United States launched the Atlas in 1958, and later it became the first ICBM to be put into service in the country.
4. In 1962, the USSR launched a rocket from a silo installation.
5. The United States passed tests in 1962, and the first solid-fuel rocket was put into service.
6. The USSR passed tests in 1970 and was accepted into the state. armament: a rocket with three multiple warheads.
7. USA since 1970 accepted for state registration. Minuteman weapons, the only one launched from a ground base.
8. USSR in 1976 accepted to the state. weapons first mobile launch missiles.
9. In 1976, the USSR adopted the first missiles launched from railway installations.
10. In 1988, the USSR passed the test and adopted the most multi-ton and powerful ICBM in the history of weapons.
11. Russia in 2009, a training launch of the latest modification of the Voevoda ICBM took place.
12. India tested an ICBM in 2012.
13. Russia in 2013 carried out a test launch of a new ICBM prototype from a mobile launch facility.
14. In 2017, the United States tested the ground-based Minuteman 3.
15. 2017 North Korea tested an intercontinental ballistic missile for the first time.

The best ICBMs in the world

Intercontinental ballistic installations are divided according to several parameters important for successfully hitting a target:

1. The best of the mobile installations is “Topol M”. Country – Russia, launched in 1994, solid fuel, monoblock.
2. The most promising for further modernization is the Yars RS-24. Country: Russia, launched in 2007, solid fuel.
3. The most powerful ICBM is Satan. Country - USSR, launched in 1970, two-stage, solid fuel.
4. The best of the long-range ones is the Trident II D5 SLBM. Country: USA, launched in 1987, three-stage.
5. The fastest is the Minuteman LGM-30G. Country: USA, launched in 1966.

Intercontinental ballistic missile "Satan"

The Voyevoda intercontinental ballistic missile is the most powerful nuclear weapon in existence in the world. In the West, in NATO countries, she is called “Satan”. There are two technical modifications of this missile in service in Russia. The latest development may lead fighting(defeat a given target) under all possible conditions, including under the condition of a nuclear explosion (or repeated explosions).

ICBMs, what does this mean in terms of general characteristics. For example, the “Voevoda” is superior in power to the recently launched American “Minuteman”:

• 200 m – hit error;
• 500 sq. km – damage radius;
• not infected by radars due to “false targets” created during flight;
• There is no missile defense system in the world capable of destroying the nuclear head of a missile.

Intercontinental ballistic missile "Bulava"

"Bulava" ICBM is the latest development of Russian scientists and engineers. The technical specifications indicate:

• solid fuel (5th generation fuel is used);
• three-stage;
• astro-radio-inertial control system;
• launch from submarines, “on the move”;
• impact radius 8 thousand km;
• weight at launch 36.8 tons;
• withstands hits from any laser weapon;
• the tests are not completed;
• other technical characteristics are classified.

Intercontinental missiles of the world

The speed and impact indicators depend on how the intercontinental ballistic missile flies (amplitude of movement). In addition to Russia and the United States, there are several other world powers armed with ICBMs, these are France and China:

1. China (DF-5A) – flight range 13,000 km, two-stage, liquid fuel.
2. China (DF-31A) – flight range 11,200 km, solid fuel, three-stage.
3. France (M51) – flight range 10,000 km, solid propellant, launched from submarines.

The military policy of any state is based on the protection of state borders, state sovereignty and national security. Therefore, it is worth asking the question: ICBMs - what could this mean for the effective protection of the borders of the Russian Federation? Russian military doctrine presupposes the right to a response when applied to its aggression. In this regard, ballistic missiles in service are the most effective means of deterring foreign aggression.

The book tells about the history of the creation and the present day of the strategic nuclear missile forces of nuclear powers. The designs of intercontinental ballistic missiles, submarine-launched ballistic missiles, medium-range missiles, and launch complexes are considered.

The publication was prepared by the supplement department of the RF Ministry of Defense magazine “Army Collection” together with the National Center for Nuclear Hazard Reduction and the Arsenal-Press publishing house.

Tables with pictures.

Sections of this page:

By the mid-50s, almost simultaneously, the military leaders of the Soviet Union and the United States set their missile designers the task of creating a ballistic missile capable of hitting targets located on another continent. The problem was not simple. A lot of complex technical issues related to ensuring the delivery of a nuclear charge to a range of over 9,000 km had to be resolved. And they had to be solved by trial and error.

Khrushchev, who came to power in N.S., realizing the vulnerability of strategic aviation aircraft, decided to find a worthy replacement for them. He bet on rockets. On May 20, 1954, a joint decree of the government and the CPSU Central Committee was issued on the creation of a ballistic missile intercontinental range. The work was entrusted to TsKB-1. Its head, S.P. Korolev, received broad powers to involve not only specialists in various fields of industry, but also to use material resources. To conduct flight tests of intercontinental missiles, a new test base was needed, since the Kapustin Yar test site could not provide the required conditions. A government decree of February 12, 1955 marked the beginning of the creation of a new test site (now known as the Baikonur Cosmodrome) for testing tactical and technical characteristics of ICBMs, satellite launches, research and experimental work on rocket and space technology. A little later, in the area of ​​​​the Plesetsk station in the Arkhangelsk region, the construction of a facility under the code name “” began, which was supposed to become the base of the first formation armed with new missiles (later it began to be used as a training ground and cosmodrome). In difficult conditions, it was necessary to build launch complexes, technical positions, measuring points, access roads, living and working premises. The brunt of the work fell on the military personnel of the construction battalions. Construction was carried out at an accelerated pace and within two years the necessary conditions for testing were created.

By this time, the TsKB-1 team had created a rocket, designated R-7 (8K71). The first test launch was scheduled for May 15, 1957 at 19.00 Moscow time. As one might expect, it aroused great interest. All the chief designers of the rocket and launch complex, program managers from the Ministry of Defense and a number of other organizations arrived. Everyone, of course, hoped for success. However, almost immediately after the command to start the propulsion system passed, a fire broke out in the tail compartment of one of the side blocks. The rocket exploded. The next launch of the S7, scheduled for June 11, did not take place due to a malfunction of the central unit remote control. It took the designers a month of persistent and painstaking work to eliminate the causes of the identified problems. And on July 12, the rocket finally took off. Everything seemed to be going well, but only a few tens of seconds of flight passed, and the rocket began to deviate from the intended trajectory. A little later it had to be liquidated. As we later found out, the cause was a violation of the missile’s flight control along the rotation channels.

ICBM R-7A (USSR) 1960

The first launches showed the presence of serious flaws in the design of the R-7.

When analyzing telemetry data, it was found that at a certain moment, when the fuel tanks were emptied, pressure fluctuations occurred in the supply lines, which led to increased dynamic loads and structural destruction. To the credit of the designers, they quickly dealt with this defect.

The long-awaited success came on August 21, 1957, when the launched rocket completely completed its planned flight plan. And on August 27, a TASS message appeared in Soviet newspapers: “Recently, a new ultra-long-range multistage ballistic missile was launched. The tests were successful. They fully confirmed the correctness of the calculations and the chosen design... The results obtained show that it is possible to launch missiles to any region of the globe.” This statement, naturally, did not go unnoticed abroad and had the desired effect.

This success opened up broad prospects not only in the military field. At the end of May 1954, S.P. Korolev sent a letter to the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR with a proposal to carry out the practical development of an artificial Earth satellite. N.S. Khrushchev approved this idea and in February 1956, practical work began on preparing the first satellite and ground-based measurement and control complex. On October 4, 1957, at 22.28 Moscow time, the R-7 rocket with the first artificial satellite on board took off and successfully placed it into orbit. On November 3, the world's first biological satellite was launched, in the cabin of which there was an experimental animal, the dog Laika. These events were of global significance and rightfully secured Soviet Union priority in the field of space exploration.

Meanwhile, combat missile testers faced new difficulties. Since the warhead rose to a height of several hundred kilometers, by the time it returned to the dense layers of the atmosphere it accelerated to enormous speeds. The round-shaped combat unit, developed earlier, quickly burned out. In addition, it became clear that it was necessary to increase the maximum flight range of the rocket and improve its operational characteristics.

On July 12, 1958, the task for the development of a more advanced rocket, the R-7A, was approved. At the same time, the “seven” was being fine-tuned. In January 1960, it was adopted by the newly created branch of the Armed Forces - the Strategic Missile Forces.

The two-stage R-7 rocket is made according to a “package” design. Its first stage consisted of four side blocks, each with a length of 19 m and a maximum diameter of 3 m, located symmetrically around the central block (the second stage of the rocket) and connected to it by the upper and lower belts of power connections. The design of all blocks is the same: the tail compartment, the power ring, the torus tank compartment for storing hydrogen peroxide used as the working fluid of the pump, the fuel tank, the oxidizer tank and the front compartment.

At the first stage, in each block, an RD-107 liquid-propellant rocket engine designed by GDL-OKB with pump supply of fuel components was installed. It had six combustion chambers. Two of them were used as helmsmen. The liquid-propellant rocket engine developed a thrust at the ground of 78 tons and ensured operation at nominal mode for 140 seconds.

The second stage was equipped with an RD-108 liquid propellant rocket engine, similar in design to the RD-107, but differing mainly a large number steering chambers - 4. It developed thrust at the ground up to 71 tons and could operate in the main stage mode for 320 seconds.

The fuel for all engines was two-component: oxidizer - liquid oxygen, fuel - kerosene. The fuel was ignited during launch by pyrotechnic devices. To achieve the specified flight range, the designers installed an automatic control system for engine operating modes and a system for simultaneous tank emptying (SOB), which made it possible to reduce the guaranteed fuel supply. Previously, such systems have not been used on rockets.

"Seven" was equipped with a combined control system. Its autonomous subsystem provided angular stabilization and stabilization of the center of mass in the active part of the trajectory. The radio subsystem corrected the lateral movement of the center of mass and issued a command to turn off the engines, which increased the accuracy of the rocket. The COE was 2.5 km when firing at a range of 8500 km.

The R-7 carried a monoblock nuclear warhead with a capacity of 5 Mt. Before launch, the rocket was installed on the launch device. Containers with kerosene and oxygen were adjusted and the refueling process began, which lasted almost 2 hours. After the launch command passed, the engines of the first and second stages were simultaneously started. Noise-proof radio control commands were transmitted aboard the rocket from special radio control points.

The missile system turned out to be bulky, vulnerable and very expensive to operate. In addition, the rocket could remain in a fueled state for no more than 30 days. An entire plant was needed to create and replenish the necessary supply of liquid oxygen for deployed missiles. Very soon it became clear that the R-7 and its modifications could not be put on combat duty in large numbers. That's how it all happened. By the time the Cuban Missile Crisis arose, the Soviet Union had only a few dozen such missiles.

On September 12, 1960, a modified R-7A (8K74) missile was put into service. It had a slightly larger second stage, which made it possible to increase the flight range by 500 km, a lighter warhead and an inertial control system. But, as one would expect, it was not possible to achieve a noticeable improvement in combat and operational characteristics.

By the mid-60s, both missile systems were removed from service and the former R-7A ICBM began to be widely used for launching spacecraft as a launch vehicle. Thus, spacecraft of the Vostok and Voskhod series were launched into orbit by a three-stage modified modification of the “seven”, consisting of six blocks: a central one, four side ones and a third stage block. Later it became the launch vehicle for the Soyuz spacecraft. Over the many years of space service, various rocket systems have been improved, but no fundamental changes have occurred.

Atlas-D ICBM (USA) 1958

Atlas-E ICBM (USA) 1962

In 1953, the command of the US Air Force, after conducting another exercise on nuclear bombing of objects located on the territory of the USSR and calculating the probable losses of its aircraft, finally came to the conclusion that it was necessary to create ICBMs. The tactical and technical requirements for such a missile were formulated quickly and early next year the Convair company received an order for its development.

In 1957, representatives of the company submitted for testing a simplified version of the ICBM, which received the designation HGM-16 and the name “Atlas-A”. Eight missiles were built without a warhead and a second stage engine (it has not yet been brought to full readiness). As the first launches showed, which ended in explosions and failures, the first stage systems were far from the required conditions. And then the news from the Soviet Union about the successful test of an intercontinental missile added fuel to the fire. As a result, General Schriever, who was at that time the head of the US Air Force Ballistic Missile Directorate, almost lost his job and was forced to give official explanations about the failures in many state commissions.

A year later, the Atlas-V rocket, fully equipped, was handed over for testing. Launches at various ranges were carried out throughout the year. The developers have made significant progress. On November 28, 1958, during the next launch, the rocket flew 9650 km and it became clear to everyone that the Atlas ICBM had taken place. This modification was intended to test the warhead and combat use techniques. All missile launches in this series were completed successfully (the first one was on December 23, 1958). Based on the results of the latest tests, a batch of missiles, designated Atlas-D, was ordered for transfer to the SAC Air Force units. The first test launch of ICBMs from this series, which took place on April 14, 1959, ended in an accident. But it was an accident, which was later confirmed.

The work on the rocket did not end there. Two more modifications were created and put into service in 1962 - E and F. There is no reason to call them fundamentally new. Changes affected the control system equipment (the radio control system was eliminated), and the design of the nose of the rocket body changed.

The Atlas-F modification was considered the most advanced. It had a mixed design. At launch, all engines began to fire simultaneously, thus representing a single-stage rocket. After reaching a certain speed, the tail section of the hull was separated together with the so-called accelerator engines. The body was assembled from sheet steel. Inside there was a single fuel tank 18.2 m long and 3 m in diameter. Its internal cavity was divided by a partition into two parts: for oxidizer and fuel. To dampen fuel fluctuations, the internal walls of the tank had a “waffle” design. For the same purpose, after the first accidents, it was necessary to install a partition system. The tail part of the hull (skirt), made of fiberglass, which was dropped in flight, was attached to the lower bottom of the tank on the frame using explosive bolts.

Atlas-F ICBM (USA) 1962

The propulsion system, consisting of an LR-105 main engine, two LR-89 launch boosters and two LR-101 steering engines, was located at the bottom of the rocket. All engines were developed in 1954–1958 by Rocketdyne.

The sustainer rocket engine had an operating time of up to 300 seconds and could develop a thrust on the ground of 27.2 tons. The LR-89 rocket engine developed a thrust of 75 tons, but could operate for only 145 seconds. To provide pitch and roll flight control, its combustion chamber had the ability to deviate by an angle of 5 degrees. Many elements of this engine were identical to the rocket engine of the Thor rocket. In order to simplify the design for the two accelerators, the developers provided common elements of the launch system and a gas generator. Exhaust gases from the fuel pump were used to heat helium gas supplied to the fuel tank pressurization. The steering rocket engines had a thrust of 450 kg, an operating time of 360 seconds and could deviate at an angle of 70 degrees.

Kerosene and supercooled liquid oxygen were used as fuel components. Fuel was also used to cool the combustion chambers of liquid-propellant rocket engines. Powder pressure accumulators were used to launch all three TNAs. The consumption of components was regulated by a discrete fuel supply control system, special sensors and a computer. After the accelerators completed the given program, they were dropped along with the helium cylinders and skirt.

The rocket was equipped with an inertial-type control system from Bosch Arma with a discrete-type computer and electronic control device. The memory elements were made on ferrite cores. The flight program, recorded on magnetic tape or magnetic drum, was stored in the rocket silo. If there was a need to replace the program, a new tape or drum was delivered from the missile base by helicopter. The control system ensured the COE of the impact points of the warhead within a radius of 3.2 km when firing at a range of about 16,000 km.

The head part of the MKZ has a sharp conical shape (in series up to and including D, the MS had a blunter shape) of a detachable type in flight and was stabilized by rotation. Its mass was 1.5 tons. The nuclear monoblock with a capacity of 3–4 Mt had several degrees of protection and reliable detonation sensors. In 1961, the Mk4 warhead weighing 2.8 tons with a more powerful charge was developed, but they decided to install it on the Titan-1 ICBM.

Atlas missiles were based in silos with lifting launch pads and were ready to launch in about 15 minutes. In total, the Americans deployed 129 launchers with these missiles and they were in service until the end of 1964.

Even before they were removed from combat duty, Atlases began to be used for space purposes. The Atlas-D rocket launched the Mercury spacecraft into orbit on February 20, 1962, with an astronaut on board. It also served as the first stage of the three-stage Atlas-Able launch vehicle. However, all three launches of this rocket in 1959–1960 from Cape Canaveral ended in failure. Atlas-F was used to launch satellites for various purposes into orbit, including Navstar. Subsequently, Atlases were used as the first stage of the Atlas-Agena, Atlas-Burner 2 and Atlas-Centaur composite launch vehicles.

But let's go back. In 1955, the US Air Force Strategic Forces Command developed a set of requirements for a heavier missile capable of carrying a powerful thermonuclear warhead. The development task was received by the Martin company. Despite enormous efforts, development work on the LGM-25A missile has clearly been delayed. Only in the summer of 1959 an experimental series of missiles entered flight tests. The first launch, on August 14, was unsuccessful due to a malfunction that occurred in the second stage. Subsequent tests were accompanied by numerous failures and accidents. The finishing was difficult. Only on February 2 of the following year did the long-awaited success come. The test rocket finally took off. It would seem that the black streak is over. But on June 15, during preparations for the launch, an explosion occurred. On July 1, the rocket had to be blown up in flight due to a large deviation from the intended trajectory. And yet, the expended efforts of a large team of designers and the financial stimulation of the project yielded positive results, which were confirmed by subsequent launches.

Titan-1 ICBM (USA) 1961

Launch of the Titan-1 ICBM

On September 29, the Titan-1 rocket (this name was assigned to the new ICBM by that time) was launched at maximum range with an equivalent warhead of 550 kg, located in a special experimental building. The rocket launched from the Canaveral test site flew 16,000 km and fell into the ocean 1,600 km southeast of the island. Madagascar. A container with instruments that separated from the warhead at an altitude of 3 km was discovered and caught by the search team. In total, during the entire flight test cycle, which lasted until October 6, 1961, 41 experimental launches of Titan-1 missiles were carried out, of which 31 were considered successful or partially successful.

The two-stage Titan-1 ICBM is designed according to the “tandem” design. Each stage had two supporting fuel tanks made of high-strength aluminum alloy. The power set and the casing of the tail and instrument compartments were made of magnesium-thorium alloy. Despite its considerable size, the dry weight of the rocket did not exceed 9 tons. To slow down the first stage at the moment of separation, the remainder of the oxidizer from the tank was released through two jet nozzles located on the upper ring of the tank. At the same time, the second stage propulsion engine was turned on.

At the moment of launch on the ground, the two-chamber liquid-propellant rocket engine LR-87, designed by Aerojet General Corporation, was turned on, developing a thrust of 136 tons. The fuel supply allowed it to operate for 145 seconds. The launch of the TNA, which operated on the main fuel components, was carried out with compressed nitrogen. Cooling of the tubular combustion chambers was provided by fuel. The combustion chambers were installed in hinged suspensions, which made it possible to create control forces in flight at pitch and yaw angles.

Roll control was implemented through the installation of nozzle nozzles into which exhaust gases emanating from the TNA were supplied.

The second stage is equipped with a single-chamber liquid-propellant rocket engine LR-91, which developed a thrust in vacuum of 36.3 tons. Its operating time is 180 seconds. The combustion chamber was mounted on a gimbal and had a tubular design. Part of the nozzle was cooled. The rest of it was a two-layer nozzle with an inner layer of phenolic plastic reinforced with asbestos. The exhaust gases after the turbine of the turbopump unit were ejected through a nozzle, which ensured the creation of forces along the roll angle. The fuel for all liquid-propellant rocket engines is two-component: fuel - kerosene, oxidizer - liquid oxygen.

The rocket was equipped with an inertial control system with radio correction on the active part of the trajectory using a ground-based computer. It included a tracking radar, a special computer “Athena” for calculating the actual trajectory, determining the moment to turn off the second stage propulsion system and generating control commands. The inertial device on board the rocket functioned for only two minutes and played a supporting role. The control system ensured shooting accuracy of 1.7 km. The Titan-1 ICBM carried a monoblock Mk4 warhead detachable in flight with a power of 4–7 Mt.

The missile was based in protected silo launchers and had operational readiness for launch in about 15 minutes. The missile system turned out to be very expensive and vulnerable, especially the tracking and control radar. Therefore, the initially planned number of deployed missiles of this type (108) was reduced by 2 times. They were destined for a short life. They were on combat duty for only three years, and at the end of 1964 the last squad of Titan-1 ICBMs was withdrawn from the SAC.

The abundance of shortcomings and, above all, the low survivability of missile systems with Atlas, Titan-1 and R-7 missiles predetermined their inevitable replacement in the near future. Even during the period of flight tests of these missiles, it became clear to Soviet and American military specialists that it was necessary to create new missile systems.

On May 13, 1959, by a special resolution of the CPSU Central Committee and the government, the Design Bureau of Academician Yangel was instructed to develop ICBMs using high-boiling fuel components. Subsequently, it received the designation R-16 (8K64). Design teams headed by V. Glushko, V. Kuznetsov, B. Konoplev and others were involved in the development of rocket engines and systems, as well as at the ground and silo launch positions.

ICBM R-16 (USSR) 1961

Initially, the R-16 was supposed to be launched only from ground launchers. An extremely short time frame was allotted for its design and flight testing.

In the process of preparing the first launch of the rocket on October 23, 1960, after it was refueled with propellant components, a malfunction appeared in the electrical circuit of the propulsion system automation, the elimination of which was carried out on the refueled rocket. Since the guarantee of engine performance after filling the turbopump unit with fuel components was determined in one day, work on preparation for launch and troubleshooting was carried out simultaneously. On final stage While preparing the rocket for flight, a premature command was sent from the software current distributor to start the second stage engine, as a result of which a fire broke out and the rocket exploded. As a result of the accident, a significant part of the combat crew, a number of senior officials who were at the launch position near the missile, were killed, including the chief designer of the control system B. M. Konoplev, the chairman of the state commission for testing, the commander-in-chief of the Strategic Missile Forces, Chief Marshal of Artillery M. I. Nedelin. The starting position was disabled by the explosion. The causes of the disaster were studied by a government commission and, based on the results of the investigation, a set of measures was outlined and implemented to ensure safety during the development and testing of rocket technology.

ICBM R-16 at the parade

The second launch of the R-16 rocket took place on February 2, 1961. Despite the fact that the rocket fell on the flight path due to loss of stability, the developers were convinced that the adopted scheme was viable. After analyzing the results and eliminating the shortcomings, the tests were continued. Hard work made it possible to complete flight tests of the R-16 from ground launchers by the end of 1961 and in the same year to put the first missile regiment on combat duty.

Since May 1960, work has been carried out related to the launch of a modified R-16U (8K64U) missile from a silo launcher. In January 1962, the first launch of a rocket from a silo took place at the Baikonur test site. The following year, the combat missile system with the R-16U ICBM was adopted by the Strategic Missile Forces.

The rocket was made according to the “tandem” design with a sequential separation of stages. The first, accelerating stage consisted of a tail compartment, a fuel tank, an instrument compartment, an oxidizer tank and an adapter. Tanks of the supporting structure were pressurized in flight: the oxidizer tank was pressurized with a counter flow of air, and the fuel tank was pressurized with compressed air from cylinders located in the instrument compartment.

The propulsion system consisted of main and steering engines. The propulsion rocket engine is assembled from three identical two-chamber blocks. Each of them included two combustion chambers, a fuel pump, a gas generator and a fuel supply system. The total thrust of all blocks on the ground is 227 tons, operating time is 90 seconds. The steering rocket engine had four rotary combustion chambers with one turbopump unit. Stage separation was ensured by pyrobolts. Simultaneously with their activation, four braking powder engines located in the first stage were turned on.

The second stage, which served to accelerate the rocket to a speed corresponding to the given flight range, had a similar design as the first, but was made shorter and of smaller diameter. Both tanks were inflated with compressed air.

The propulsion system was largely borrowed from the first stage, which reduced the cost and simplified production, but only one block was installed as a main engine. It developed a vacuum thrust of 90 tons and operated for 125 seconds. The designers managed to successfully solve the problem of reliable launch of a liquid-propellant rocket engine in a rarefied atmosphere, and the main engine was turned on after the separated stage was removed.

Installation of the R-16 ICBM on the launch pad

All rocket engines operated on fuel components that ignited spontaneously on contact. To refuel the rocket with propellant components, supply it to the combustion chambers, store compressed air and distribute it to consumers, the rocket was equipped with a pneumatic hydraulic system.

The R-16 had a secure autonomous control system. It included automatic stabilization, RKS, SOB, and automatic range control systems. For the first time on Soviet missiles, a gyro-stabilized platform on a ball-bearing suspension was used as a sensitive element of the control system. Firing accuracy (CA) was 2.7 km when flying at maximum range. In preparation for launch, the rocket was installed on the launch device so that the stabilization plane was in the firing plane. After this, the tanks were filled with fuel components. The R-16 ICBM was equipped with a detachable monoblock warhead of several types. The so-called light warhead had a power of 3 Mt, and the heavy one - 6 Mt.

The R-16 became the base missile for creating a group of intercontinental missiles of the Strategic Missile Forces. The R-16U was deployed in smaller quantities, since the construction of silo complexes required more time than the commissioning of complexes with ground-based launchers. In addition, in 1964 it became clear that this rocket was morally obsolete. Like all first-generation missiles, these ICBMs could not remain fueled for long. They were kept in constant readiness in shelters or mines with empty tanks and required considerable time to prepare for launch. The survivability of the missile systems was also low. And yet, for its time, the R-16 was a completely reliable and fairly advanced missile.

Let's go back to 1958, in the USA. And not by chance. The first tests of ICBMs with liquid propellant engines aroused concern among the leaders of the missile program regarding the possibility of completing tests in the near future, and the prospects of such missiles raised doubts. Under these conditions, attention was turned to solid fuel. As early as 1956, some US industrial firms began active work on the creation of relatively large solid fuel engines. In this regard, a group of specialists was assembled in the Rocket Directorate's research department at Raymo-Wooldridge, whose responsibilities were to collect and analyze data on the progress of research in the field of solid fuel engines. Colonel Edward Hall was sent to this group, former leader rocket program "Thor", removed from office, as is known, due to a number of failures in testing this rocket. The active colonel, wanting to rehabilitate himself, after a deep study of the materials, prepared a project for a new missile system, which promised tempting prospects if implemented. General Schriever liked the project and asked management for $150 million for its development. The proposed missile system received the code WS-133A and the name “Minuteman”. But the Air Force Ministry authorized the allocation of only 50 million to finance the first stage, which involved mainly theoretical research. There is nothing surprising. At that time in the United States, there were many high-ranking military leaders and politicians who doubted the possibility of quickly implementing such a project, which was more based on optimistic ideas that had not yet been tested in practice.

Having been refused a full appropriation, Schriver developed vigorous activity and eventually achieved the allocation of a round sum in 1959 - $184 million. Schriever was not going to take risks with the new rocket, as he had done before, and did everything not to repeat the sad experience. At his insistence, Colonel Otto Glaser was appointed head of the Minuteman project, who by that time had proven himself to be a capable organizer, a member of the scientific community and influential circles of the military-industrial complex. Such a person was very necessary, since having approved the creation of a new missile system, the leadership of the US Department of Defense set strict requirements - to enter flight tests at the end of 1960 and ensure the adoption of the system in 1963.

The work unfolded on a wide front. Already in July 1958, the composition of the development companies was approved, and in October the Boeing company was appointed as the lead company for assembly, installation and testing. In April-May of the following year, the first full-scale tests of the rocket stages were carried out. To speed up their development, it was decided to involve several companies: Thiokol Chemical Corporation developed the first stage, Aerojet General Corporation developed the second stage, and Hercules Powder Corporation developed the third stage. All stage tests were successful.

In early September of the same year, the Senate declared the Minuteman missile system program the highest national priority, which entailed an additional allocation of $899.7 million for its implementation. But despite all the measures, it was not possible to begin flight tests at the end of 1960. The first test launch of the Minuteman-1A ICBM took place on February 1, 1961. And immediately good luck. At that time, this fact was a “fantastic success” for American rocketry. There was a huge uproar about this. Newspapers touted the Minuteman missile system as the embodiment of US technical superiority. The information leak was not accidental. It was used as a means of intimidating the Soviet Union, relations with which the United States of America had sharply deteriorated primarily because of Cuba.

However, the real situation was not so rosy. Back in 1960, before the start of flight tests, it became clear that the Minuteman-1 A would not be able to fly at a range of over 9,500 km. Subsequently, tests confirmed this assumption. In October 1961, the developers began work on improving the rocket in order to increase the flight range and power of the warhead. Later this modification received the designation “Minuteman-1B”. But they also did not intend to abandon the deployment of A-series missiles. At the end of 1962, it was decided to place 150 of them on combat duty at the Malstrom Air Force Missile Base, Montana.

Minuteman 1B ICBM and missile installer

At the beginning of 1963, testing of the Minuteman-1B ICBM was completed and at the end of that year it began to enter service. By July 1965, the creation of a group of 650 missiles of this type was completed. The Minuteman 1 missile was tested at the Western Missile Range (Vandenberg Air Force Base). In total, taking into account combat training launches, 54 missiles of both modifications were launched.

For its time, the LGM-30A Minuteman 1 ICBM was very advanced. And what is very important, it had, as a Boeing representative said, “... unlimited possibilities for improvement." This was not empty bravado, and the reader will be able to see this below. The three-stage rocket, with sequential separation of stages, was made of materials that were modern for that time.

The first stage engine housing was made of special steel with high purity and strength. A coating was applied to its inner surface, ensuring connection between the housing and the fuel charge. It also served as thermal protection, which made it possible to compensate for changes in fuel volume when the charge temperature fluctuated. The M-55 solid propellant rocket engine had four rotating nozzles. It developed a thrust on the ground of 76 tons. Its operating time was 60 seconds. Mixed fuel consisting of ammonium perchlorate, polybutadiene copolymer, acrylic acid, epoxy resin and powdered aluminum. The filling of the charge into the housing was controlled by a special computer.

ICBM R-9A (USSR) 1965

The second stage engine had a titanium alloy housing. A charge of polyurethane-based mixed fuel was poured into the housing. A similar stage of the Minuteman-1B rocket had a slightly larger charge. Four rotating nozzles provided flight control. The M-56 solid propellant rocket engine developed a thrust in vacuum of 27 tons.

The third stage engine had a fiberglass casing. It developed a thrust of 18.7 tons. Its duration of operation was about 65 seconds. The fuel charge was similar in composition to the charge of the second stage solid propellant rocket engine. Four rotating nozzles provided control at all angles.

An inertial control system, built on the basis of a sequential computer, provided control of the missile’s flight in the active part of the trajectory and a firing accuracy of 1.6 km. "Minuteman-1 A" carried a monoblock nuclear warhead Mk5 with a yield of 0.5 Mt, which was aimed at a predetermined target. "Minuteman-1B" was equipped with a monoblock nuclear warhead Mk11 with a capacity of 1 Mt. Before launch, it could have been aimed at one of two possible targets. The missiles were stored in silo launchers and could be launched within a minute after the launch command was received from the detachment's control point. The first stage propulsion engine was started directly in the shaft, and in order to reduce the heating of the housing by hot gases, it was coated on the outside with special protective paint.

The presence of such a missile system in service significantly increased the potential of US nuclear forces, and also created conditions for launching a surprise nuclear strike on the enemy. Its appearance caused great concern among the Soviet leadership, since the R-16 ICBM, with all its advantages, was clearly inferior to the American missile in terms of survivability and combat readiness, and the R-9A (8K75) ICBM being developed at OKB-1 has not yet passed flight tests. It was created in accordance with a government decree of May 13, 1959, although individual work on the design of such a rocket began much earlier.

The beginning of flight design tests of the R-9 (S.P. Korolev was present at the first launch on April 9, 1961) cannot be called completely successful. The lack of development of the first stage liquid-propellant rocket engine had an effect - strong pressure pulsations in the combustion chamber failed. He was put on the rocket under pressure from V. Glushko. Although the propulsion systems for this rocket were decided to be created on a competitive basis, the head of the GDL-OKB could not lower the prestige of his team, which was considered the leader in engine building.

This was the reason for the explosions during the first launches. Design teams led by A. Isaev and N. Kuznetsov also took part in the competition. As a result of the curtailment of the aircraft engine construction program, the latter's design bureau was left with virtually no orders. Kuznetsov's liquid-propellant rocket engine was built according to a more advanced closed circuit with afterburning of exhaust turbogas in the main combustion chamber. In the liquid rocket engines of Glushko and Isaev, created according to an open design, the gas exhausted in the turbopump unit was discharged through the exhaust pipe into the atmosphere. The work of all three design bureaus reached the stage of bench testing, but the competitive selection did not work out. The “lobbying” approach of the Glushko Design Bureau still prevailed.

In the end, the problems with the engines were fixed. However, the tests were delayed, since the original method of launching from a ground launcher was abandoned in favor of the silo version. At the same time as the rocket’s reliability increased, OKB-1 specialists had to solve a problem on which the very possibility of the “nine” being on combat duty depended. It's about ways long-term storage large quantities of liquid oxygen to fill the rocket tanks. As a result, a system was created that ensured oxygen loss of no more than 2–3% per year.

Flight tests were completed in February 1964, and on July 21, 1965, the missile, designated R-9A, was put into service and remained on combat duty until the second half of the 70s.

Structurally, the R-9A was divided into the first stage, which consisted of a tail compartment of the propulsion system with nozzle fairings and short stabilizers, supporting cylindrical fuel and oxidizer fuel tanks and a truss adapter. The control system devices were “embedded” into the shell of the intertank compartment.

The “Nine” was distinguished by a relatively short operating period of the first stage, as a result of which the separation of the stages occurred at an altitude where the influence of the velocity pressure on the rocket was still significant. The so-called “hot” method of stage separation was implemented on the rocket, in which the second stage engine was started at the end of the first stage propulsion engine. In this case, hot gases flow through the truss structure of the adapter. Due to the fact that at the moment of separation the second stage rocket engine operated at only 50% of the rated thrust and the short second stage was aerodynamically unstable, the steering nozzles could not cope with the disturbing moments. To eliminate this drawback, the designers installed special aerodynamic flaps on the outer surface of the jettisonable tail compartment, the opening of which, when the stages were separated, shifted the center of pressure and increased the stability of the rocket. After the liquid-propellant rocket engine reached the operating thrust mode, the fairing of the tail section along with these flaps was dropped.

ICBM R-9A (USSR) 1965

With the advent in the United States of systems for detecting ICBM launches using a powerful engine torch, a short period of operation of the first stage became an advantage of the “nine”. After all, the shorter the lifespan of the torch, the more difficult for systems Missile defense to respond to such a missile. The R-9A had engines running on oxygen-kerosene fuel. It was precisely this fuel that S. Korolev paid special attention to as non-toxic, high-energy and cheap to produce.

At the first stage there was a four-chamber RD-111 with exhaust of waste steam gas from the TNA through a fixed nozzle between the chambers. To ensure rocket control, the cameras were made to swing. The engine developed a thrust of 141 tons and operated for 105 seconds.

At the second stage, a four-chamber liquid propellant engine with RD-461 steering nozzles designed by S. Kosberg was installed. It had a record specific impulse for that time among oxygen-kerosene engines and developed a thrust in vacuum of 31 tons. The maximum operating time was 165 seconds. To quickly bring the propulsion systems to nominal mode and ignite the fuel components, a special starting system with pyroignition devices was used.

The missile was equipped with a combined control system that ensured firing accuracy (CAO) at ranges over 12,000 km and no more than 1.6 km. On the R-9A, the radio technical channel was eventually abandoned.

For the R-9A ICBM, two versions of monoblock nuclear warheads were developed: standard and heavy, weighing 2.2 tons. The first had a power of 3 Mt and could be delivered to a range of over 13,500 km, the second - 4 Mt. With it, the missile's flight range reached 12,500 km.

As a result of the introduction of a number of technical innovations, the rocket turned out to be compact, suitable for launch from both ground and silo launchers. The rocket, launched from a ground launcher, additionally had an adapter frame, which was attached to the tail section of the first stage.

Despite its advantages, by the time the first missile regiment was put on combat duty, the “nine” no longer fully satisfied the set of requirements for combat strategic missiles. And it is not surprising, since it belonged to the first generation ICBMs and retained their inherent features. While superior to the American Titan-1 ICBM in combat, technical and operational characteristics, it was inferior to the latest Minutemen in terms of shooting accuracy and launch preparation time, and these indicators became decisive by the end of the 60s. The R-9A became the last combat missile to use oxygen-kerosene fuel.

The rapid development of electronics in the early 60s opened up new horizons for the development of military systems for various purposes. For rocket science, this factor was of great importance. An opportunity has arisen to create more advanced missile control systems capable of ensuring high hit accuracy, largely automating the operation of missile systems, and most importantly, automating centralized combat control systems capable of ensuring guaranteed delivery of launch orders to ICBMs, coming only from the high command (president) and exclude unauthorized use nuclear weapons.

The Americans were the first to begin this work. They didn't need to create a completely new rocket. Even during the period of work on the Titan-1 rocket, it became clear that its characteristics could be improved by introducing new technologies into production. At the beginning of 1960, the designers of the Martin company began modernizing the rocket, and at the same time creating a new launch complex.

Flight development tests that began in March 1962 confirmed the correctness of the chosen technical strategy. In many ways, the rapid progress of work was facilitated by the fact that the new ICBM inherited much from its predecessor. In June of the following year, the Titan-2 missile was accepted into service with the strategic nuclear forces, although control and combat training launches were still ongoing. In total, from the beginning of testing to April 1964, 30 launches of missiles of this type were carried out at various ranges from the Western Missile Test Site. The Titan-2 missile was intended to destroy the most important strategic targets. Initially, it was planned to put 108 units on duty, replacing all Titan-1s. But plans changed, and as a result they limited themselves to 54 missiles.

Despite the close relationship, the Titan-2 ICBM had many differences from its predecessor. The method of pressurizing fuel tanks has changed. The oxidizer tank at the first stage was pressurized with gaseous nitrogen tetroxide, the fuel tanks of both stages were pressurized with cooled generator gas, the oxidizer tank of the second stage had no pressurization at all. When the engine of this stage was operating, constant thrust was ensured by maintaining a constant ratio of fuel components in the gas generator using Venturi nozzles installed in the fuel supply lines. The fuel was also changed. Stable aerosin-50 and nitrogen tetroxide were used to power all liquid-propellant rocket engines.

Titan-2 ICBM in flight

ICBM "Minuteman-2" in silo

At the first stage, a modernized two-chamber LR-87 rocket engine with a thrust on the ground of 195 tons was installed. Its turbopump unit was spun up using a powder starter. The LR-91 second-stage propulsion rocket engine has also undergone modernization. Not only its thrust has increased (up to 46 tons), but also the degree of expansion of the nozzle. In addition, two steering solid propellant rocket engines were installed in the tail section.

Fire separation of stages was used on the rocket. The second-stage propulsion engine was turned on when the pressure in the combustion chambers of the liquid-propellant rocket engine dropped to 0.75 nominal, which gave a braking effect. At the moment of separation, two braking engines were turned on. When the head part was separated from the second stage, the latter was braked by three brake solid propellant rocket engines and moved to the side.

The flight of the rocket was controlled by an inertial control system with a small-sized GPS and a digital computer, performing 6000 operations per second. A lightweight magnetic drum with a capacity of 100,000 units of information was used as a storage device, which made it possible to store several flight missions for one rocket in memory. The control system ensured a firing accuracy of 1.5 km and automatic execution, upon command from the control point, of the pre-launch preparation and launch cycle.

Due to the increase in throw weight, a heavier monoblock Mkb warhead with a capacity of 10–15 Mt was installed on the Titan-2. In addition, it carried a set of passive means of overcoming missile defense.

By placing ICBMs in single silo launchers, it was possible to significantly increase their survivability. Since the rocket was in a fueled state in the silo, operational readiness for launch increased. It took just over a minute for the rocket to rush towards the selected target after receiving the order.

Before the advent of the Soviet R-36 missile, the Titan-2 intercontinental ballistic missile was the most powerful in the world. She remained on combat duty until 1987. The modified Titan-2 rocket was also used for peaceful purposes to launch various spacecraft into orbit, including the Gemini spacecraft. On its basis, various versions of the Titan-3 launch vehicles were created.

The Minuteman missile system also received further development. This decision was preceded by the work of a special Senate commission, whose task was to determine the further and, if possible, more economical path for the development of strategic weapons for the United States. The commission’s conclusions stated that it was necessary to develop the ground component of the American strategic nuclear forces based on the Minuteman missile.

Titan-2 ICBM (USA) 1963

In July 1962, Boeing received an order to develop the LGM-30F Minuteman 2 rocket. To meet customer requirements, the designers needed to create a new second stage and control system. But a missile system is not just a rocket. It was necessary to significantly modernize ground-based technological and technical equipment, command post systems and launchers. At the end of the summer of 1964, the new ICBM was ready for flight tests. On September 24, the first launch of the Minuteman-2 ICBM was carried out from the Western Missile Range. The entire range of tests was completed within a year, and in December 1965, deployment of these missiles began at the Grand Forks Air Force Base, North Dakota. In total, taking into account the combat training launches carried out by regular crews to gain experience in combat use, during the period from September 1964 to the end of 1967, 46 launches of ICBMs of this type took place from the Vandenberg base.

On the Minuteman 2 rocket, the first and third stages were no different from the similar stages of the Minuteman 1 B rocket, but the second was completely new. Aerojet General Corporation has developed the SR-19 solid propellant rocket engine with a vacuum thrust of 27 tons and an operating time of up to 65 seconds. The engine housing was made of titanium alloy. The use of polybutadiene-based fuel made it possible to obtain a higher specific impulse. To achieve the specified firing range, the fuel supply had to be increased by 1.5 tons. Since the rocket engine now had only one fixed nozzle, designers had to develop new ways to generate control forces.

Pitch and yaw angles were controlled by adjusting the thrust vector by injecting freon into the supercritical part of the solid propellant rocket engine nozzle through four holes located around the circumference at an equal distance from each other. The control forces on the roll angle were implemented by four small jet nozzles, which were built into the engine body. Their functioning was ensured by a powder pressure accumulator. The freon supply was stored in a toroidal tank placed on the top of the nozzle.

An inertial control system with a universal digital computer assembled on microcircuits was installed on the rocket. All gyroscopes of the sensitive elements of the GPS were in a spin-up state, which made it possible to maintain the rocket in a very high readiness for launch. The excess heat released during this process was removed by a temperature control system. Hydroblocks could operate in this mode continuously for 1.5 years, after which they had to be replaced. The magnetic disk storage device provided storage of eight flight missions designed for various targets.

When the missile was on combat duty, its control system was used to carry out checks, calibrate on-board equipment and other tasks solved in the process of maintaining combat readiness. When firing at maximum range, it ensured a shooting accuracy of 0.9 km.

“Minuteman-2” was equipped with a monoblock nuclear warhead Mk11 of two modifications, differing in charge power (2 and 4 Mt). The missile was successfully equipped with means to overcome missile defense.

By the beginning of 1971, the entire Minuteman-2 ICBM group was fully deployed. Initially, it was planned to supply the Air Force with 1000 missiles of this type (upgrade 800 Minuteman-1A(B) missiles and build 200 new ones). But the military department had to reduce requests. As a result, only half (200 new and 300 modernized) missiles were put on combat duty.

After the Minuteman-2 missiles were installed in the launch silos, the first checks revealed failures of the on-board control system. The flow of such failures increased noticeably and the only repair base in the city of Newark could not cope with the volume repair work due to limited production capabilities. For these purposes, it was necessary to use the capacity of the Otonetics manufacturing plant, which immediately affected the rate of production of new missiles. The situation became even more complicated when modernization of the Minuteman-1B ICBM began at missile bases. The reason for this phenomenon, which was very unpleasant for the Americans, which also resulted in a delay in the deployment of the entire group of missiles, was that even at the stage of developing tactical and technical requirements, an insufficient level of reliability of the control system was laid down. It was only possible to cope with requests for repairs by October 1967, which of course required additional cash expenses.

At the beginning of 1993, the US strategic nuclear forces included 450 deployed Minuteman-2 ICBMs and 50 missiles in reserve. Naturally, over its long service life, the missile was modernized in order to increase its combat capabilities. Improvement of some elements of the control system made it possible to increase the firing accuracy to 600 m. The fuel charges in the first and third stages were replaced. The need for such work was caused by the aging of the fuel, which affected the reliability of the rockets. The protection of launchers and command posts of missile systems was increased.

Over time, such an advantage as a long service life turned into a disadvantage. The thing is that the existing cooperation of companies involved in the production of missiles and components for them at the development and deployment stage began to disintegrate. Periodic updating of various missile systems required the manufacture of products that had not been produced for a long time, and the costs of maintaining a group of missiles in combat-ready condition were steadily increasing.

In the USSR, the first second-generation ICBM to be equipped with the Strategic Missile Forces was the UR-100 missile, developed under the leadership of Academician Vladimir Nikolaevich Chelomey. The task was issued to the team he led on March 30, 1963, by a corresponding government decree. In addition to the head design bureau, a significant number of related organizations were involved, which made it possible to work out all the systems of the created missile complex in short time. In the spring of 1965, flight tests of the rocket began at the Baikonur test site. On April 19, a launch took place from a ground launcher, and on July 17, the first launch from a silo took place. The first tests showed that the propulsion system and control system were incomplete. However, eliminating these shortcomings did not take much time. On October 27 of the following year, the entire flight test program was completely completed. On November 24, 1966, the combat missile system with the UR-100 missile was adopted by the missile regiments.

The UR-100 ICBM was made according to the “tandem” design with sequential separation of stages. The fuel tanks of the supporting structure had a combined bottom. The first stage consisted of a tail section, a propulsion system, fuel and oxidizer tanks. The propulsion system included four propulsion rocket engines with rotary combustion chambers, made in a closed circuit. The engines had a high specific thrust impulse, which made it possible to limit the operating time of the first stage.

ICBM PC-10 (USSR) 1971

The second stage is similar in design to the first, but smaller in size. Its propulsion system consisted of two rocket engines: a single-chamber propulsion engine and a four-chamber steering engine.

To increase the energy capabilities of the engines, ensure refueling and draining of rocket fuel components, the rocket had a pneumatic-hydraulic system. Its elements were placed on both steps. Nitrogen tetroxide and unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine, which self-ignite upon mutual contact, were used as fuel components.

An inertial control system was installed on the rocket, which ensured a firing accuracy of 1.4 km. Its component subsystems were distributed throughout the rocket. The UR-100 carried a monoblock warhead with a nuclear charge of 1 Mt that separated in flight from the second stage.

The great advantage was that the rocket was ampulized (isolated from the external environment) in a special container in which it was transported and stored in a silo launcher for several years in constant readiness for launch. The use of diaphragm valves separating fuel tanks with aggressive components from rocket engines made it possible to keep the rocket constantly fueled. The rocket launched directly from the container. Monitoring the technical condition of the missiles of one combat missile system, as well as pre-launch preparation and launch, were carried out remotely from a single command post.

The UR-100 ICBM was further developed in a number of modifications. In 1970, UR-100 UTTH missiles began to enter service, which had a more advanced control system, a more reliable warhead and a set of means to overcome missile defense.

Even earlier, on July 23, 1969, flight tests of another modification of this missile, which received the military designation UR-100K (RS-10), began at the Baikonur test site. They ended on March 15, 1971, after which the replacement of UR-100 missiles began.

The new missile was superior to its predecessors in shooting accuracy, reliability and performance characteristics. The propulsion systems of both stages were modified. The service life of liquid-propellant rocket engines has been increased, as well as their reliability. A new transport and launch container was developed. Its design has become more rational and convenient, which has made it easier to maintain the rocket and reduce the time of routine maintenance by three times. The installation of new control equipment made it possible to fully automate the cycle of checking the technical condition of missiles and launcher systems. The security of missile complex structures has increased.

ICBM UR-100 in TPK at the parade

ICBM PC-10 assembled without warhead (outside the launch container)

For the beginning of the 70s, the rocket had high combat characteristics and reliability. The flight range was 12,000 km, the accuracy of delivery of the monoblock warhead of the megaton class was 900 m. All this determined its long service life, which was extended more than once by the commission of the chief designer: the combat missile system with the UR-100K missile, adopted by the Strategic Missile Forces in October 1971, was in service duty until 1994. In addition, the PC-10 family became the most popular of all Soviet ICBMs.

On June 16, 1971, the latest modification of this family, the UR-100U rocket, took off from Baikonur on its first flight. It was equipped with a warhead with three dispersible warheads. Each block carried a nuclear charge with a power of 350 kt. During the tests, a flight range of 10,500 km was achieved. At the end of 1973, this ICBM entered service.

The next second-generation ICBM to be equipped with the Strategic Missile Forces was the R-36 (8K67), the ancestor of Soviet heavy missiles. By a government decree of May 12, 1962, Academician Yangel's design bureau was tasked with creating a rocket capable of significantly supporting the ambitions of N. S. Khrushchev. It was intended to destroy the enemy’s most important strategic targets protected by missile defense systems. The technical specifications provided for the creation of a rocket in two versions, which were to differ in launching methods: with a ground launch (like the American Atlas) and with a silo launch, like the R-16U. The unpromising first option was quickly abandoned. Nevertheless, the rocket was developed in two versions. But now they differed in the principle of constructing a control system. The first rocket had a purely inertial system, and the second had an inertial system with radio correction. When creating the complex, special attention was paid to the maximum simplification of the launch positions, which were developed by the design bureau under the leadership of E. G. Rudyak: their reliability was increased, missile refueling was excluded from the launch cycle, remote control of the main parameters of the missile and systems was introduced during combat duty and preparation for launch and remote rocket launch.

ICBM R-36 (USSR) 1967

1 - top part cable box; 2 - second stage oxidizer tank; 3 - second stage fuel tank; 4 - pressure sensor of the traction control system; 5 - frame for attaching engines to the body; 6 - turbopump unit; 7 - liquid-propellant rocket engine nozzle; 8 - steering rocket engine of the second stage; 9 - first stage brake powder engine; 10 - protective fairing of the steering motor; 11 - intake device; 12 - first stage oxidizer tank; 13 - rocket control system unit located on the first stage; 14 - first stage fuel tank; 15 - protected oxidizer supply pipeline; 16 - fastening the liquid-propellant rocket engine frame to the body of the tail section of the first stage; 17 - liquid-propellant rocket engine combustion chamber; 18 - first stage steering motor; 19 - drainage pipe; 20 - pressure sensor in the fuel tank; 21 - pressure sensor in the oxidizer tank.

ICBM R-36 at the parade

The tests were carried out at the Baikonur test site. On September 28, 1963, the first launch took place, which ended unsuccessfully. Despite the initial malfunctions and failures, members of the state commission under the leadership of Lieutenant General M. G. Grigoriev recognized the rocket as promising and had no doubt about its ultimate success. The system of testing and testing the missile system adopted by that time made it possible, simultaneously with flight tests, to launch serial production of missiles, technological equipment, as well as the construction of launch positions. At the end of May 1966, the entire test cycle was completed, and on July 21 of the following year, the DBK with the R-36 ICBM was put into service.

The two-stage R-36 is made according to the “tandem” design from high-strength aluminum alloys. The first stage provided acceleration of the rocket and consisted of a tail section, a propulsion system and supporting fuel tanks of fuel and oxidizer. The fuel tanks were inflated in flight with combustion products of the main components and had devices for damping vibrations.

The propulsion system consisted of a six-chamber propulsion and four-chamber steering liquid rocket engines. The propulsion rocket engine was assembled from three identical two-chamber blocks mounted on a common frame. The supply of fuel components to the combustion chambers was ensured by three TNAs, the turbines of which were spun by the products of fuel combustion in the gas generator. The total thrust of the engine at the ground was 274 tons. The steering rocket engine had four rotary combustion chambers with one common turbopump unit. The cameras were installed in the “pockets” of the tail compartment.

The second stage ensured acceleration to a speed corresponding to the specified firing range. Its fuel tanks of a supporting structure had a combined bottom. The propulsion system located in the tail compartment consisted of a two-chamber main and four-chamber steering liquid rocket engines. The RD-219 propulsion rocket engine is largely similar in design to the first stage propulsion units. The main difference was that the combustion chambers were designed for a greater degree of gas expansion and their nozzles also had a greater degree of expansion. The engine included two combustion chambers, a fuel pump feeding them, a gas generator, automation units, an engine frame and other elements. It developed a vacuum thrust of 101 tons and could operate for 125 seconds. The steering motor was no different in design from the engine installed on the first stage.

ICBM R-36 at launch

All liquid-propellant rocket engines were developed by GDL-OKB designers. To power them, a two-component fuel, self-igniting on contact, was used: the oxidizer was a mixture of nitrogen oxides with nitric acid, and the fuel was asymmetrical dimethylhydrazine. To refuel, drain and supply fuel components to rocket engines, a pneumatic hydraulic system was installed on the rocket.

The stages were separated from each other and the head part by firing explosive bolts. To avoid collisions, braking of the separated stage was provided due to the activation of braking powder engines.

A combined control system was developed for the R-36. The autonomous inertial system provided control in the active part of the trajectory and included a stabilization automatic, a range automatic, a security system that ensured the simultaneous production of oxidizer and fuel from the tanks, and a system for turning the rocket after launch to the designated target. The radio control system was supposed to correct the movement of the rocket at the end of the active section. However, during flight tests it became clear that the autonomous system ensures the specified shooting accuracy (CEP of about 1200 m) and the radio system was abandoned. This made it possible to significantly reduce financial costs and simplify the operation of the missile system.

The R-36 ICBM was equipped with a monoblock thermonuclear warhead of one of two types: light - with a power of 18 Mt and heavy - with a power of 25 Mt. To overcome the enemy's missile defense, a reliable set of special equipment was installed on the missile. In addition, there was a system for emergency destruction of the warhead, which was triggered when the movement parameters on the active part of the trajectory deviated beyond the permissible limits.

The missile was launched automatically from a single silo, where it was stored in a fueled state for 5 years. A long service life was achieved by sealing the rocket and creating optimal temperature and humidity conditions in the shaft. The DBK with the R-36 had unique combat capabilities and was significantly superior to the American complex of a similar purpose with the Titan-2 missile, primarily in terms of nuclear charge power, shooting accuracy and security.

The last of the Soviet missiles of this period to enter service was the PC-12 combat solid-fuel ICBM. But long before that, in 1959, in the design bureau headed by S.P. Korolev, the development of an experimental rocket with solid fuel engines, designed to destroy objects in the medium range, began. Based on the results of tests of the units and systems of this rocket, the designers concluded that it was possible to create an intercontinental missile. A discussion ensued between supporters and opponents of this project. At that time, Soviet technology for creating large mixed charges was just in its infancy, and naturally there were doubts about its ultimate success. Everything was too new. The decision to create a solid-fuel rocket was made at the very top. Not the least role was played by news from the United States about the start of testing ICBMs using mixed solid fuel. On April 4, 1961, a government decree was issued, in which the Korolev Design Bureau was appointed as the lead in creating a fundamentally new stationary combat missile system with an intercontinental solid-fuel missile equipped with a monoblock warhead. Many research organizations and design bureaus were involved in solving this problem. To test intercontinental missiles and implement a number of other programs, on January 2, 1963, a new Plesetsk test site was created.

In the process of developing the missile system, complex scientific, technical and production problems had to be solved. Thus, mixed solid fuels and large-sized engine charges were developed and the technology for their production was mastered. A fundamentally new management system has been created. A new type of launcher was developed that ensures the launch of a rocket on a main engine from a blind launch cup.

RS-12, second and third stages without warhead

ICBM PC-12 (USSR) 1968

The first launch of the RT-2P rocket took place on November 4, 1966. The tests were carried out at the Plesetsk test site under the guidance of a state commission. It took exactly two years to completely dispel all doubts of skeptics. On December 18, 1968, the missile system with this missile was adopted by the Strategic Missile Forces.

The RT-2P rocket had three stages. To connect them together, connecting compartments of a truss structure were used, which allowed the gases of the main engines to escape freely. The engines of the second and third stages were turned on a few seconds before the pyrobolts were activated.

The rocket engines of the first and second stages had steel casings and nozzle blocks consisting of four split control nozzles. The third stage rocket engine differed from them in that it had a body of mixed design. All engines were made in different diameters. This was done in order to ensure the specified flight range. To launch solid propellant rocket engines, special igniters were used, mounted on the front bottoms of the hulls.

The missile control system is autonomous inertial. It consisted of a set of instruments and devices that controlled the movement of the rocket in flight from the moment of launch until the transition to the uncontrolled flight of the warhead. The control system used computers and pendulum accelerometers. The elements of the control system were located in the instrument compartment installed between the head part and the third stage, and its executive bodies were located at all stages in the tail compartments. The shooting accuracy was 1.9 km.

The ICBM carried a monoblock nuclear charge with a yield of 0.6 Mt. Monitoring the technical condition and launching the missiles was carried out remotely from the DBK command post. The important features of this complex for the troops were ease of operation, a relatively small number of service units and the lack of refueling facilities.

The emergence of American missile defense systems required the modernization of the missile in relation to new conditions. Work began in 1968. On January 16, 1970, the first test launch of the modernized rocket took place at the Plesetsk test site. Two years later it was adopted.

The modernized RT-2P differed from its predecessor by a more advanced control system, a warhead whose nuclear charge power was increased to 750 kt, and improved operational characteristics. Firing accuracy increased to 1.5 km. The missile was equipped with a complex for overcoming missile defense systems. The modernized RT-2Ps, which were supplied to equip missile units in 1974 and previously released missiles modified to their technical level, remained on combat duty until the mid-90s.

By the end of the 60s, conditions began to emerge for achieving nuclear parity between the United States and the Soviet Union. The latter, rapidly increasing the combat potential of its strategic nuclear forces and, above all, its Strategic Missile Forces, could in the coming years catch up with the United States of America in the number of nuclear warheads. Overseas, high-ranking politicians and military personnel were not happy with this prospect.

RS-12, first stage

The next round of the missile arms race was associated with the creation of multiple warheads with individually targetable warheads (MRV type MIRV). Their appearance was caused, on the one hand, by the desire to have as large a number of nuclear warheads as possible to destroy targets, and on the other, by the inability to endlessly increase the number of launch vehicles for a number of economic and technical reasons.

The higher level of development of science and technology at that time allowed the Americans to be the first to begin work on the creation of MIRVs. Initially, dispersive type warheads were developed in a special research center. But they were only suitable for hitting area targets due to their low pointing accuracy. Such a MIRV was equipped with the Polaris-AZT SLBM. The introduction of powerful on-board computers made it possible to increase the accuracy of guidance. At the end of the 60s, specialists from the research center completed the development of individual target MIRVs Mk12 and Mk17. Their successful tests at the White Sands Army Test Site (where all American nuclear warheads were tested) confirmed the possibility of their use on ballistic missiles.

The carrier of the Mk12, the design of which was developed by representatives of the General Electric company, was the Minuteman-3 ICBM, the design of which Boeing began at the end of 1966. Possessing high shooting accuracy, according to the plan of American strategists, it was supposed to become a “thunderstorm of Soviet missiles.” The previous model was taken as a basis. No significant modifications were required, and in August 1968 the new missile was transferred to the Western Missile Range. There, according to the flight design test program for the period from 1968 to 1970, 25 launches were carried out, of which only six were considered unsuccessful. After the completion of this series, six more demonstration launches were carried out for high authorities and ever-doubting politicians. All of them were successful. But they were not the last in the history of this ICBM. During its long service, 201 launches were carried out both for testing and training purposes. The missile showed high reliability. Only 14 of them ended unsuccessfully (7% of the total).

Since the end of 1970, the Minuteman-3 began to enter service with the US Air Force SAC to replace all the Minuteman-1B series missiles and 50 Minuteman-2 missiles remaining at that time.

The Minuteman-3 ICBM structurally consists of three sequentially located solid propellant rocket engines and a MIRV with a fairing attached to the third stage. The engines of the first and second stages are M-55A1 and SR-19, inherited from their predecessors. The SR-73 solid propellant rocket motor was designed by United Technologies specifically for the third stage of this rocket. It has a bonded solid propellant charge and one fixed nozzle. During its operation, the pitch and yaw angles are controlled by liquid injection into the supercritical part of the nozzle, and the roll control is carried out using an autonomous gas generator system installed on the hull skirt.

The new NS-20 brand control system was developed by the Otonetics division of Rockwell International. It is designed to control flight in the active part of the trajectory; calculating trajectory parameters in accordance with the flight mission recorded in the storage devices of the three-channel digital computer; calculating control commands for the drives of the rocket actuators; managing the warhead breeding program when targeting individual targets; carrying out self-monitoring and monitoring the functioning of on-board and ground systems during combat duty and pre-launch preparation. The main part of the equipment is located in a sealed instrument compartment. GSP gyroblocks are in an untwisted state when on combat duty. The generated heat is removed by a temperature control system. The control system provides shooting accuracy (CAO) of 400 m.

ICBM "Minuteman-3" (USA) 1970

I - first stage; II - second stage; III - third stage; IV - head part; V - connecting compartment; 1 - combat unit; 2 - platform of warheads; 3 - electronic units for automatic combat units; 4 - solid propellant rocket launcher; 5 - charge of solid fuel of a rocket engine; 6 - thermal insulation of the rocket engine; 7 - cable box; 8 - gas injection device into the nozzle; 9 - solid propellant rocket nozzle; 10 - connecting skirt; 11 - tail skirt.

Let’s take a special look at the design of the Mk12 warhead. Structurally, the MIRV consists of a combat compartment and a breeding stage. In addition, a complex of means for overcoming missile defense can be installed, which uses dipole reflectors. The mass of the head part with fairing is slightly more than 1000 kg. The fairing initially had an ogival shape, then a triconic shape and was made of titanium alloy. The warhead body is two-layer: the outer layer is a heat-protective coating, the inner layer is a power shell. A special tip is installed at the top.

At the bottom of the breeding stage there is a propulsion system, which includes an axial thrust engine, 10 orientation and stabilization engines and two fuel tanks. To power the propulsion system, two-component liquid fuel is used. The displacement of components from the tanks is carried out by the pressure of compressed helium, the supply of which is stored in a spherical cylinder. Axial thrust engine thrust - 143 kg. The operating time of the remote control is about 400 seconds. The power of the nuclear charge of each warhead is 330 kt.

In a relatively short time, a group of 550 Minuteman-3 missiles was deployed at four missile bases. The missiles are in the silo in 30-second readiness for launch. The launch was carried out directly from the mine shaft after the first stage solid propellant rocket engine reached operating mode.

All Minuteman-3 missiles have been modernized more than once. The charges of the first and second stage rocket engines were replaced. The characteristics of the control system were improved by taking into account the errors of the command instrument complex and the development of new algorithms. As a result, the firing accuracy (CA) was 210 m. In 1971, a program began to improve the security of silo launchers. It included strengthening the shaft structure, installing new system missile suspensions and a number of other activities. All work was completed in February 1980. The security of the silos was brought to a value of 60–70 kg/cm?.

ICBM RS-20A with MIRV (USSR) 1975

1 - first stage; 2 - second stage; 3 - connecting compartment; 4 - head fairing; 5 - tail section; 6 - first stage supporting tank; 7 - combat unit; 8 - first stage propulsion system; 9 - frame for mounting the propulsion system; 10 - first stage fuel tank; 11 - first stage ASG lines; 12 - oxidizer supply pipeline; 13 - first stage oxidizer tank; 14 - power element of the connecting compartment; 15 - steering rocket engine; 16 - second stage propulsion system; 17 - second stage fuel tank; 18 - second stage oxidizer tank; 19 - ASG line; 20 - control system equipment.

On August 30, 1979, a series of 10 flight tests were completed to test the improved MK12A MIRV. It was installed to replace the previous one on 300 Minuteman-3 missiles. The charge power of each warhead was increased to 0.5 Mt. True, the area for spreading the blocks and the maximum flight range have decreased somewhat. Overall, this ICBM is reliable and capable of hitting targets throughout the former Soviet Union. Experts believe that it will be on combat duty until the beginning of the next millennium.

The appearance of missiles with MIRVs in the US strategic nuclear forces sharply worsened the situation of the USSR. Soviet ICBMs immediately fell into the category of morally obsolete, since they could not solve a number of newly emerging problems, and most importantly, the likelihood of delivering an effective retaliatory strike was significantly reduced. There was no doubt that the warheads of the Minuteman-3 missiles, in the event of a nuclear war, would strike silo launchers and command posts of the Strategic Missile Forces. And the likelihood of such a war at that time was very high. In addition, in the second half of the 60s, work in the field of missile defense intensified in the United States.

The problem could not be resolved simply by creating a new ICBM. It was necessary to improve the combat control system for missile weapons, increase the protection of command posts and launchers, and also solve a number of related problems. After a detailed study by specialists of the development options for the Strategic Missile Forces and the report of the research results to the government leadership, it was decided to develop heavy and medium missiles capable of carrying a significant payload and ensuring the achievement of parity in the field nuclear weapons. But this meant that the Soviet Union was being drawn into a new round of the arms race, and in the most dangerous and expensive area.

The Dnepropetrovsk Design Bureau, which after the death of M. Yangel was headed by Academician V.F. Utkin, was tasked with creating a heavy rocket. There, in parallel, development work began on a rocket with a lower launch mass.

The heavy ICBM RS-20A took off on its first test flight on February 21, 1973 from the Baikonur test site. Due to the complexity of the technical problems being solved, the development of the entire complex dragged on for two and a half years. At the end of 1975, on December 30, the new DBK with this missile was put on combat duty. Having inherited all the best from the R-36, the new ICBM has become the most powerful missile in its class.

The rocket was made according to the “tandem” design with a sequential separation of stages and structurally included the first, second and combat stages. The supporting structure fuel tanks were made of metal alloys. The separation of the stages was ensured by the actuation of explosive bolts.

RS-20A ICBM with monoblock warhead

The first-stage propulsion rocket engine combined four autonomous propulsion blocks into a single design. Control forces in flight were created by deflecting the nozzle blocks.

The propulsion system of the second stage consisted of a propulsion rocket engine, made in a closed circuit, and a four-chamber steering engine, made in an open circuit. All liquid-propellant rocket engines operated on high-boiling liquid fuel components that ignited on contact.

An autonomous inertial control system was installed on the rocket, the operation of which was ensured by an on-board digital computer complex. To increase the reliability of the BTsVK, all its main elements had redundancy. During combat duty, the on-board computer ensured the exchange of information with ground devices. The most important parameters of the technical condition of the rocket were controlled by the control system. The use of BTsVK made it possible to achieve high shooting accuracy. The CEP of the impact points of the warheads was 430 m.

ICBMs of this type carried particularly powerful combat equipment. There were two options for warheads: monoblock, with a power of 24 Mt, and MIRV with 8 individually targeted warheads, each with a power of 900 kt. The missile was equipped with an improved complex for overcoming anti-missile defense systems.

ICBM RS-20B (USSR) 1980

The RS-20A missile, placed in a transport and launch container, was installed in an OS-type silo launcher in a fueled state and could be on combat duty long time. Preparation for launch and launch of the rocket were carried out automatically after the control system received a launch command. To exclude unauthorized use of nuclear missile weapons, the control system accepted for execution only commands defined by a code key. The implementation of such an algorithm was made possible by the introduction of a new centralized combat control system at all command posts of the Strategic Missile Forces.

This missile was in service until the mid-80s, until it was replaced by the RS-20B. Its appearance, like all its contemporaries in the Strategic Missile Forces, is due to the development by the Americans of neutron ammunition, new achievements in the field of electronics and mechanical engineering, and increasing requirements for the combat and operational characteristics of strategic missile systems.

The RS-20B ICBM differed from its predecessor in a more advanced control system and a combat stage modified to the level of modern requirements. Due to powerful energy, the number of warheads on the MIRV was increased to 10.

The combat equipment itself has also changed. Since shooting accuracy has increased, it has become possible to reduce the power of nuclear charges. As a result, the flight range of the missile with a monoblock warhead was increased to 16,000 km.

R-36 missiles have also found use for peaceful purposes. On their basis, a launch vehicle was created to launch into orbit spacecraft of the “Cosmos” series for various purposes.

Another brainchild of Utkin Design Bureau was the PC-16A ICBM. Although it was the first to enter testing (the launch at Baikonur took place on December 26, 1972), it was accepted into service on the same day along with the RS-20 and PC-18, the story of which is yet to come.

The RS-16A rocket is a two-stage rocket with liquid fuel engines, designed in a “tandem” configuration with sequential separation of stages in flight. The rocket body has a cylindrical shape with a conical head. Fuel tanks of supporting structure.

RS-20V ICBM in flight

Space rocket complex "Cyclone" based on RS-20B

The propulsion system of the first stage consisted of a propulsion liquid rocket engine, made in a closed circuit, and a steering four-chamber liquid-propellant rocket engine, made in an open circuit with rotary combustion chambers.

At the second stage, one sustaining single-chamber liquid-propellant rocket engine was installed, designed in a closed circuit, with a portion of the exhaust gas being blown into the supercritical part of the nozzle to create control forces in flight. All rocket engines operate on high-boiling, self-igniting oxidizer and fuel on contact. To ensure stable operation of the engines, the fuel tanks were pressurized with nitrogen. The rocket was refueled after installation in the launch silo.

An autonomous inertial control system with an on-board computer complex was installed on the rocket. It provided control of all missile systems during combat duty, pre-launch preparation and launch. The established algorithms for the functioning of the control system in flight made it possible to ensure a firing accuracy of no more than 470 m. The RS-16A missile was equipped with a multiple warhead with four individually targeted warheads, each of which contained a nuclear charge with a power of 750 kt.

ICBM PC-16A (USSR) 1975

1 - first stage, 2 - second stage, 3 - instrument compartment, 4 - tail compartment, 5 - fairing of the head section, 6 - connecting compartment, 7 - first stage propulsion system, 8 - steering rocket engine, 9 - propulsion system mounting frame, 10 - first stage fuel tank, 11 - oxidizer supply pipeline, 12 - first stage oxidizer tank, 13 - ASG line, 14 - second stage propulsion system mounting frame, 15 - second stage propulsion system, 16 - second stage fuel tank, 17 - second stage oxidizer tank, 18 - oxidizer tank pressurization line, 19 - electronic control units, 20 - combat unit, 21 - head fairing mounting hinge.

The great advantage of the new combat missile system was that the missiles were installed in silo launchers previously built for first and second generation ballistic missiles. It was necessary to carry out the necessary amount of work to improve some silo systems and it was possible to load new missiles. This resulted in significant savings financial resources.

On October 25, 1977, the first launch of the modernized missile, designated RS-16B, took place. Flight tests were carried out at Baikonur until September 15, 1979. On December 17, 1980, the DBK with a modernized missile was put into service.

The new missile differed from its predecessor in an improved control system (the accuracy of delivery of warheads increased to 350 m) and a combat stage. The multiple warhead installed on the missile has also undergone modernization. The missile's combat capabilities have increased by 1.5 times, the reliability of many systems and the security of the entire DBK have increased. The first RS-16B missiles were put on combat duty in 1980, and at the time of the signing of the START-1 Treaty, the Strategic Missile Forces had 47 missiles of this type in service.

ICBM RS-16A assembled without warhead (outside the launch container)

The third missile that entered service during this period was the PC-18, developed in the design bureau of Academician V. Chelomey. This missile was supposed to harmoniously complement the strategic weapons system being created. Her first flight took place on April 9, 1973. Flight design tests took place at the Baikonur test site until the summer of 1975, after which the State Commission considered it possible to adopt the DBK for service.

The PC-18 missile is a two-stage missile, designed in a “tandem” configuration with sequential separation of stages in flight. Structurally, it consisted of the first and second stages, connecting compartments, an instrument compartment and an instrumentation unit with a split warhead.

The first and second stages made up the so-called accelerator block. All fuel tanks are of a supporting structure. The first stage propulsion system had four propulsion liquid rocket engines with rotary nozzles. One of the rocket engines was used to maintain the operating mode of the propulsion system in flight.

The propulsion system of the second stage consisted of a propulsion rocket engine and a steering liquid engine, which had four rotary nozzles. To ensure stable operation of the rocket engines of the accelerator block in flight, pressurization of the fuel tanks was provided.

All rocket engines operated on self-igniting stable rocket fuel components. Refueling was carried out at the factory after the missile was installed in the transport and launch container. However, the design of the pneumatic-hydraulic system of the rocket and the TPK made it possible, if necessary, to carry out operations to drain and subsequently refuel the rocket fuel components. The pressure in all rocket tanks was continuously monitored by a special system.

An autonomous inertial control system based on an on-board digital computer complex was installed on the rocket. While on combat duty, the control system, together with the ground-based central control system, monitored the on-board systems of the missile and adjacent systems of the launcher. The missile was launched into all operational and combat modes remotely from the DBK command post. The high characteristics of the control system were confirmed during test launches. The firing accuracy (CA) was 350 m. The RS-18 carried a MIRV with six individually targetable warheads with a nuclear charge of 550 kt and could hit highly protected enemy target targets covered by missile defense systems.

The missile was “ampulized” in a transport and launch container, which was placed in silo launchers with a high degree of protection specially created for this missile system.

The DBK with the PC-18 ICBM was a significant step forward even in comparison with the missile system with the RS-16A missile adopted at the same time. But as it turned out, during operation it was not without its shortcomings. In addition, during combat training launches of missiles put on combat duty, a defect in the liquid propellant engine of one of the stages was revealed. Things took a serious turn. As always, there were some “switchmen” to blame. Colonel General M. G. Grigoriev was removed from the post of First Deputy Commander-in-Chief of the Strategic Missile Forces, whose only fault was that he was the chairman of the State Commission for testing the missile system with the RS-18 missile.

These problems accelerated the adoption of a modernized missile under the same designation RS-18 with improved tactical and technical characteristics, flight tests of which were carried out from October 26, 1977. In November 1979, the new DBK was officially adopted to replace its predecessor.

ICBM RS-18 (USSR) 1975

1 - first stage body; 2 - second stage body; 3 - sealed instrument compartment; 4 - combat stage; 5 - tail section of the first stage; 6 - fairing of the head part; 7 - first stage propulsion system; 8 - first stage fuel tank; 9 - oxidizer supply pipeline; 10 - first stage oxidizer tank; 11 - cable box; 12 - ASG line; 13 - second stage propulsion system; 14 - power element of the connecting compartment housing; 15 - second stage fuel tank; 16 - second stage oxidizer tank; 17 - ASG line; 18 - solid propellant brake motor; 19 - control system devices; 20 - combat unit.

On the improved rocket, defects in the rocket engines of the accelerator block were eliminated, while at the same time increasing their reliability, improving the characteristics of the control system, installing a new instrument unit, which increased the flight range to 10,000 km, and increased the efficiency of combat equipment.

The command post of the missile system has undergone significant modifications. A number of systems were replaced with more advanced and reliable ones. We increased the degree of protection from the damaging factors of a nuclear explosion. The changes made significantly simplified the operation of the entire combat missile system, which was immediately noted in reviews from military units.

From the second half of the 70s, the Soviet Union began to experience a lack of financial resources for the harmonious development of the country's economy, which was caused not least by large expenditures on armaments. Under these conditions, the modernization of all three missile systems was carried out with the maximum degree of saving financial and material resources. Improved missiles were installed in place of old ones, and modernization in most cases was carried out by bringing existing missiles to new standards.

The efforts made in the 70s to further improve and develop missile weapons in our country played an important role in achieving strategic parity between the USSR and the USA. The adoption and deployment of third-generation missile systems equipped with individually targeted MIRVs and means of penetrating missile defenses has made it possible to achieve an approximate equality in the number of nuclear warheads on strategic carriers (excluding strategic bombers) of both states.

During these years, the development of ICBMs, like SLBMs, began to be influenced by a new factor - the process of limiting strategic weapons. On May 26, 1972 in Moscow during a meeting at top level The Interim Agreement between the Soviet Union and the United States of America on Certain Measures in the Field of Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms, known as SALT I, was signed. It was concluded for a period of five years and came into force on October 3, 1972.

The interim agreement established quantitative and qualitative restrictions on fixed ICBM launchers, SLBM launchers and ballistic missile submarines. The construction of additional stationary ground-based ICBM launchers was prohibited, which fixed their quantitative level as of July 1, 1972 for each of the parties.

Modernization of strategic missiles and launchers was permitted on the condition that the launchers of ground-based light ICBMs, as well as ballistic missiles deployed before 1964, would not be converted into launchers for heavy missiles.

In 1974–1976, in accordance with the Protocol on procedures governing the replacement, dismantling and destruction of strategic offensive weapons, the Strategic Missile Forces removed from combat duty and eliminated 210 R-16U and R-9A ICBM launchers with equipment and structures for launch positions. The United States did not need to carry out such work.

On June 19, 1979, a new treaty on the limitation of strategic arms was signed in Vienna between the USSR and the USA, which was called the SALT-2 Treaty. If it came into force, each of the parties had to limit the level of strategic carriers to 2250 units from January 1, 1981. Carriers equipped with individually targeted MIRVs were subject to restrictions. In the established total limit, they should not exceed 1320 units. Of this number, the limit for ICBM launchers was set at 820 units. In addition, strict restrictions were imposed on the modernization of stationary launchers of strategic intercontinental missiles - the creation of mobile launchers of such missiles was prohibited. Only one new type of light ICBM with a number of warheads not exceeding 10 was allowed to be flight tested and deployed.

Despite the fact that the SALT II Treaty fairly and balancedly took into account the interests of both sides, the US administration refused to ratify it. And no wonder: Americans are thoughtful about their interests. By that time, most of their nuclear warheads were on SLBMs, and in order to fit within the established limits on carriers, 336 missiles would have to be eliminated. They were to be either the ground-based Minutemen-3 or the sea-based Poseidons, recently adopted into service with modern SSBNs. At that time, testing of the new Ohio SSBN with the Trident 1 missile had just finished, and the interests of the American military-industrial complex could have been seriously damaged. In a word, from the financial side, the government and the US military-industrial complex were not satisfied with this Treaty. However, there were other reasons to refuse its ratification. But although the SALT II Treaty never came into force, the parties still adhered to some restrictions.

During that period, another state began to arm itself with intercontinental ballistic missiles. At the end of the 70s, the Chinese took up the creation of ICBMs. They needed such a missile to bolster their claims to a leading role in the Asian region and the Pacific Ocean. Possessing such weapons could also threaten the United States.

Flight development tests of the Dun-3 missile were carried out over a limited range - China did not have prepared test routes of significant length. The first such launch was carried out from the Shuangengzi test site at a range of 800 km. The second launch was carried out from the Wuzhai test site at a range of about 2000 km. The tests were clearly dragging on. Only in 1983, the Dong-3 ICBM (Chinese designation - Dongfeng-5) was adopted by the nuclear forces of the People's Liberation Army of China.

In terms of technical level, it corresponded to Soviet and American ICBMs of the early 60s. The two-stage rocket with sequential separation of stages had an all-metal body. The steps were connected to each other through a transition compartment of the truss structure. Due to the low energy characteristics of the engines, the designers had to increase the fuel supply in order to achieve the specified flight range. The maximum diameter of the missile was 3.35 m, which is still a record for an ICBM.

The inertial control system, traditional for Chinese missiles, ensured a firing accuracy of 3 km. Dun-3 carried a monoblock nuclear warhead with a capacity of 2 Mt.

The survivability of the complex as a whole remained low. Despite the fact that the ICBM was placed in a silo launcher, its protection did not exceed 10 kg/cm? (by pressure at the shock wave front). For the 80s this was clearly not enough. The Chinese missile lagged significantly behind American and Soviet missile technology in all important combat indicators.

ICBM "Dong-3" (China) 1983

Equipping combat units with this missile was carried out slowly. In addition, a launch vehicle was created on its basis for launching spacecraft into near-Earth orbits, which could not but affect the rate of production of combat intercontinental missiles.

In the early 90s, the Chinese modernized the Dong-3. A significant jump in the level of the economy made it possible to raise the level of rocket science. Dong-ZM became the first Chinese ICBM with MIRV. It was equipped with 4–5 individually targeted warheads with a capacity of 350 kt each. The characteristics of the missile control system were improved, which immediately affected the shooting accuracy (the COE was 1.5 km). But even after modernization, this missile cannot be considered modern in comparison with foreign analogues.

Let's go back to the USA in the seventies. In 1972, a special government commission studied the prospects for the development of US strategic nuclear forces until the end of the 20th century. Based on the results of its work, President Nixon's administration issued a task for the development of a promising ICBM capable of carrying MIRVs with 10 individually targetable warheads. The program received the MX cipher. The advanced research phase lasted six years. During this time, one and a half dozen rocket projects with a launch weight from 27 to 143 tons, presented by various companies, were studied. As a result, the choice fell on the project of a three-stage rocket with a mass of about 90 tons, capable of being placed in the silos of Minuteman missiles.

In the period from 1976 to 1979, intensive experimental work was carried out both on the design of the rocket and on its possible basing. In June 1979, President Carter decided to undertake full-scale development of a new ICBM. The parent company was Martin Marietta, which was entrusted with the coordination of all work.

In April 1982, bench fire tests of the solid propellant rocket stages began, and a year later - on June 17, 1983 - the rocket went on its first test flight to a range of 7600 km. It was considered quite successful. Simultaneously with flight tests, basing options were being studied. Initially, three options were considered: mine, mobile and air. For example, it was planned to create a special carrier aircraft, which was supposed to carry out combat duty by loitering in designated areas and, upon a signal, drop a missile, having previously aimed it. After separation from the carrier, the first stage propulsion engine had to be turned on. But this, as well as a number of other possible options, remained on paper. The American military really wanted to get the latest missile with a high degree of survivability. By that time, the main way had become to create mobile missile systems, the location of the launchers of which could change in space, which created difficulties for delivering a targeted nuclear strike on them. But the principle of saving money prevailed. Since the tempting air option was extremely expensive, and the Americans did not have time to fully develop the mobile ground (mobile underground was also proposed), it was decided to place 50 new ICBMs in the modernized Minuteman-3 missile silos at the Warren missile base, and also to continue testing mobile railway complex.

In 1986, the LGM-118A missile, called the Peacekeeper, entered service (in Russia it is better known as the MX). When creating it, the developers used all the latest innovations in the field of materials science, electronics and instrument engineering. Much attention was paid to reducing the mass of structures and individual elements of the rocket.

MX includes three sustainer stages and a MIRV. They all have the same design and consist of a housing, a solid fuel charge, a nozzle block and a thrust vector control system. The first stage solid propellant rocket motor was created by Thiokol. Its body is wound from Kevlar-49 fibers, which have high strength and low weight. The front and rear bottoms are made of aluminum alloy. The nozzle block is deflectable with flexible supports.

The second stage solid propellant rocket engine was developed by Aerojet and is structurally different from the Thiokol engine in the nozzle block. The high expansion deflectable nozzle has a telescopic nozzle for increased length. It is pushed into the working position using a gas generator device after the rocket engine of the previous stage is separated. To create control forces for rotation at the stage of operation of the first and second stages, a special system is installed, consisting of a gas generator and a control valve that redistributes the gas flow between two obliquely cut nozzles. The Hercules third-stage solid propellant rocket engine differs from its predecessors in the absence of a thrust cut-off system, and its nozzle has two telescopic nozzles. Dual-mix fuel charges are poured into finished rocket engine housings.

SPU ICBM RS-12M

The steps are connected to each other using adapters made of aluminum. The entire rocket body is covered on the outside with a protective coating, protecting it from heating by hot gases during launch and from the damaging factors of a nuclear explosion.

The inertial control system of a rocket with a Meka-type on-board central control system is located in the compartment of the MIRV propulsion system, which made it possible to save the overall length of the ICBM. It provides flight control during the active part of the trajectory, at the stage of disengagement of warheads, and is also used while the missile is on combat duty. The high quality of GPS devices, taking into account errors and the use of new algorithms ensured a shooting accuracy of about 100 m. To create the necessary temperature conditions, the in-flight control system is cooled with freon from a special tank. Pitch and yaw angles are controlled by deflectable nozzles.

The MX ICBM is equipped with a Mk21 split warhead, consisting of a warhead compartment covered by a fairing and a propulsion unit compartment. The first compartment has a maximum capacity of 12 warheads, similar to the Minuteman-ZU missile warhead. Currently, it houses 10 individually targeted warheads with a capacity of 600 kt each. Propulsion system with multiple firing liquid rocket engine. It is launched at the stage of operation of the third stage and ensures the disengagement of all combat equipment. Developed for MIRV Mk21 new complex means of overcoming missile defense systems, including light and heavy decoys, various jammers.

The rocket is placed in a container from which it is launched. For the first time, the Americans used a “mortar launch” to launch an ICBM from a silo launcher. The solid fuel gas generator, located in the lower part of the container, when triggered, ejects the rocket to a height of 30 m from the level of the silo protective device, after which the first stage propulsion engine is turned on.

According to American experts, the combat effectiveness of the MX missile system is 6–8 times greater than that of the Minuteman-3 system. In 1988, the program to deploy 50 Peacekeeper ICBMs ended. However, the search for ways to increase the survivability of these missiles has not been completed. In 1989, a railway mobile missile system entered testing. It consisted of a launch car, a combat control car equipped with the necessary control and communication equipment, as well as other cars that ensured the functioning of the entire complex. This DBK was tested at the training ground of the Ministry of Railways until mid-1991. Upon completion, it was planned to deploy 25 trains with 2 launchers each. In peacetime, they were all supposed to be at a point of permanent deployment. With transfer to higher degrees Combat readiness, the US strategic nuclear forces command planned to disperse all trains along the railway network of the United States of America. But the signing of the START Limitation and Reduction Treaty in July 1991 changed these plans. The railway missile system never entered service.

In the USSR, in the mid-80s, missile weapons of the Strategic Missile Forces received further development. This was caused by the implementation of the American strategic defense initiative, which provided for the launch into space orbits of nuclear weapons and weapons based on new physical principles, which created an extremely high danger and vulnerability for the strategic nuclear forces of the USSR throughout the territory. To maintain strategic parity, it was decided to create new silo- and railway-based missile systems with RT-23 UTTX missiles, similar in their characteristics to the American MX, and to modernize the RS-20 and PC-12 ballistic missile systems.

The first of them, in 1985, adopted a mobile missile launcher with the RS-12M missile. The accumulated wealth of experience in operating mobile ground-based systems (for operational-tactical missiles and medium-range missiles) allowed Soviet designers to quickly create a practically new mobile complex on the basis of a silo-based intercontinental solid-fuel missile. The upgraded missile was placed on a self-propelled launcher mounted on the chassis of a seven-axle MAZ tractor.

RS-12M ICBM in flight

In 1986, the State Commission adopted a railway missile system with an RT-23UTTKh ICBM, and two years later, the RT-23UTTKh, located in silos previously used for RS-18 missiles, entered service with the Strategic Missile Forces. After the collapse of the USSR, 46 of the latest missiles ended up on the territory of Ukraine and are currently subject to destruction.

All these rockets are three-stage, with solid fuel engines. Their inertial control system ensures high shooting accuracy. The RS-12M ICBM carries a monoblock nuclear warhead with a capacity of 550 kt, and both modifications of the RS-22 carry an individually targeted MIRV with ten warheads.

The heavy intercontinental missile RS-20V entered service in 1988. It remains the most powerful rocket in the world and is capable of carrying a payload twice as large as the American MX.

With the signing of the START I Treaty, the development of intercontinental missiles in the United States and the Soviet Union came to a halt. At that time, each country was developing a complex with a small-sized missile to replace outdated third-generation ICBMs.

The American Midgetman program began in April 1983 in accordance with the recommendations of the Scowcroft Commission, appointed by the US President to develop proposals for the development of land-based intercontinental missiles. The developers were given quite stringent requirements: to ensure a flight range of 11,000 km, and reliable destruction of small targets with a monoblock nuclear warhead. In this case, the missile should have a mass of about 15 tons and be suitable for placement in silos and on mobile ground installations. Initially, this program was given the status of the highest national priority and work began in full swing. Very quickly, two versions of a three-stage rocket with a launch mass of 13.6 and 15 tons were developed. After a competitive selection, it was decided to develop a rocket with a larger mass. Fiberglass and composite materials were widely used in its design. At the same time, the development of a mobile protected launcher for this missile was underway.

But with the intensification of work on SDI, there has been a tendency to slow down work on the Midgetman program. At the beginning of 1990, President Reagan gave instructions to curtail work on this complex, which was never brought to full readiness.

Unlike the American one, the Soviet DBK of this type was almost ready for deployment by the time the Treaty was signed. Flight tests of the missile were in full swing and options for its combat use were being developed.

Launch of the RS-22B ICBM

Currently, only China continues to develop ICBMs, seeking to create a missile capable of competing with American and Russian models. Work is underway on a solid-fuel rocket with MIRV. It will have three sustainer stages with solid fuel rocket engines and a launch weight of about 50 tons. The level of development of the electronics industry will make it possible (according to some estimates) to create an inertial control system capable of providing a firing accuracy (CAO) of no more than 800 m. It is assumed that it will be based on the new ICBM will be in silo launchers.

Strategic nuclear systems have long turned into weapons of deterrence, and play more into the hands of politicians than the military. And, if strategic missiles are not completely eliminated, then both Russia and the United States will have to replace physically and morally obsolete ICBMs with new ones. Time will tell what they will be like.

An integral part of the weapons of major world powers. Since their appearance, they have established themselves as a formidable weapon, capable of solving tactical and strategic problems over long distances.

The variety of tasks and advantages provided by such projectiles have led to a number of scientific breakthroughs in this field. The second half of the 20th century is considered the era of rocket science. Technologies have found application not only in the military sphere, but also in the construction of spaceships.

Ballistic and cruise missiles have a wide variety of applications and classifications. However, there are a number of general aspects on the basis of which a number of the best rockets in the world can be identified. To determine such a list, you should understand the general differences between these weapons.

What is a ballistic missile

A ballistic missile is a projectile striking along an uncontrolled trajectory.

Taking into account this aspect, it has two flight stages:

• a short controlled stage, according to which further speed and trajectory are set;
• free flight - having received core team, the projectile moves along a ballistic trajectory.

Often, such weapons use multi-stage acceleration systems. Each stage is disconnected after fuel has been spent, which allows the projectile to increase in speed by reducing weight.

The development of a ballistic missile is associated with the research of K. E. Tsiolkovsky. Back in 1897, he determined the relationship between the speed under the influence of the thrust of a rocket engine, its specific impulse, and the mass at the beginning and end of the flight. The scientist’s calculations still occupy the most important place in design.

The next important discovery was made by R. Goddard in 1917. He used a liquid rocket engine for the Laval nozzle. This solution doubled the power plant and had a significant response in subsequent work by G. Oberth and the team of Wernher von Braun.

In parallel with these discoveries, Tsiolkovsky continued his research. By 1929, he had developed a multi-stage principle of propulsion taking into account earth's gravity. He also developed a number of ideas for optimizing the combustion system.

Hermann Oberth was one of the first to think about applying such discoveries in the field of astronautics. However, before him, the ideas of Tsiolkovsky and Goddard were implemented by the team of Wernher von Braun in the military sphere. It was on the basis of their research that the first mass-produced V-2 (V2) ballistic missiles appeared in Germany.

On September 8, 1944, they were used for the first time during the bombing of London. However, during the Allied occupation of Germany, all research documents were taken out of the country. Further developments were carried out by the USA and the USSR.

What is a cruise missile?

A cruise missile is an unmanned aerial vehicle. In its structure and history of creation, it is closer to aviation than to rocket science. The outdated name is projectile aircraft - it has fallen out of use, since planning aerial bombs were also called that way.

The term “cruise missile” should not be associated with the English cruise missile. The latter includes only software-controlled projectiles that maintain a constant speed for most of the flight.

Taking into account the specific structure and use of cruise missiles, the following advantages and disadvantages of such projectiles are distinguished:

• programmable flight course, which allows you to create a combined trajectory and bypass enemy missile defenses;
• movement at low altitude taking into account the terrain makes the projectile less noticeable for radar detection;
• the high accuracy of modern cruise missiles is combined with the high cost of their production;
• shells fly at a relatively low speed - approximately 1150 km/h;
• the destructive power is low, with the exception of nuclear weapons.

The history of the development of cruise missiles is connected with the advent of aviation. Even before the First World War, the idea of ​​a flying bomb arose. The technologies necessary for its implementation were soon developed:

• in 1913, a radio control system for an unmanned aerial vehicle was invented by a school physics teacher, Wirth;
• in 1914, E. Sperry's gyroscopic autopilot was successfully tested, which made it possible to keep the aircraft on a given course without the participation of the pilot.

Against the backdrop of such technologies, flying projectiles were being developed in several countries at once. Most of them were carried out in parallel with work on autopilot and radio control. The idea to equip them with wings belongs to F.A. Zander. It was he who published the story “Flights to Other Planets” in 1924.

The first successful mass production of such aircraft The Queen is considered to be an English radio-controlled aerial target. The first samples were created in 1931, and in 1935 mass production of the Queen Bee (queen bee) was launched. By the way, it was from this moment that drones received the unofficial name Drone - drone.

The main task of the first drones was reconnaissance. For combat use there was not enough accuracy and reliability, which, given the high cost of development, made production impractical.

Despite this, research and testing in this direction continued, especially with the outbreak of World War II.

The first classical cruise missile is considered to be the German V-1. Its tests took place on December 21, 1942, and it received combat use towards the end of the war against Great Britain.

First tests and applications showed low accuracy of the projectile. Because of this, it was planned to use them together with the pilot, who at the final stage had to leave the projectile with a parachute.

As in the case of ballistic missiles, the developments of German scientists went to the winners. The further baton for the design of modern cruise missiles was taken over by the USSR and the USA. It was planned to use them as nuclear weapons. However, the development of such projectiles was stopped due to economic inexpediency and the success of the development of ballistic missiles.

The best ballistic and cruise missiles in the world

To determine the most powerful rockets in the world, various classification methods are often used. Ballistic weapons are divided into strategic and tactical, depending on the application.

In connection with the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty, the following categorization is applied:

• short range - 500-1000 km;
• average - 1000-5500 km;
• intercontinental - more than 5500 km.

Cruise missiles have several types of classification. Based on their charge, they are divided into nuclear and conventional. According to the assigned tasks - strategic, tactical and operational-tactical (usually anti-ship). Depending on their location, they can be ground, air, sea and underwater.

Scud B (P-17)

Scud B, aka R-17, unofficially - “kerosene” - is a Soviet ballistic missile adopted for service in 1962 for the 9K72 Elbrus operational-tactical complex. It is considered one of the most famous in the West, due to active supplies to allied countries of the USSR.

Used in the following conflicts:

• Egypt against Israel during the Yom Kippur Operation;
• Soviet Union in Afghanistan;
• During the first war in Persian Gulf Iraq against Saudi Arabia and Israel;
• Russia during the Second Chechen War;
• Yemeni rebels against Saudi Arabia.

Technical characteristics of R-17:

• projectile length from the supporting heels to the top of the head part - 11,164 mm;
• case diameter - 880 mm;
• spread of stabilizers - 1810 mm;
• weight of an unfilled product with a head part 269A - 2076 kg;
• weight of a fully filled product with a 269A head - 5862 kg;
• the weight of the unfilled product with the 8F44 head is 2074 kg;
• weight of a fully filled product with an 8F44 head - 5860 kg;
• engine 9D21 - liquid, jet;
• supply of fuel components to the engine by a turbopump unit powered by a gas generator;
• the method of promoting TNA is from a powder bomb;
• executive element of the control system - gas-jet rudders;
• emergency detonation system - autonomous;
• maximum destruction range - 300 km;
• minimum range - 50 km;
• guaranteed range - 275 km.

The R-17's warhead could be either high-explosive or nuclear. The power of the second option varied and could be 10, 20, 200, 300 and 500 kilotons.

"Tomahawk"

American Tomahawk cruise missiles are perhaps the most famous of this category of projectiles. Adopted into service in the United States in 1983. From that moment on, they were used in all conflicts involving America as strategic and tactical weapons.

Development of the Tomahawk began in 1971. The main task was to create strategic cruise missiles for submarines. The first prototypes were presented in 1974, and test launches began a year later.

Since 1976, developers from the Navy and Air Force have been involved in the program. Prototypes of the projectile for aviation appeared, and later land modifications of the Tomahawks were also tested.

The Joint Cruise Missile Program (JCMP) was adopted in January of the following year. According to it, all such projectiles had to be developed on a common technological basis. It was she who laid the foundation for the diversified development of Tomahawks as the most promising development.

The result of this step was the appearance of various modifications. Aviation, ground-based, mobile systems, surface and submarine fleets - there are similar projectiles everywhere. Their ammunition can vary depending on the mission - from conventional warheads to nuclear charges and cluster bombs.

Often missiles are also used for reconnaissance missions. A low flight path that skirts the terrain allows it to remain undetected by enemy missile defense systems. Less commonly, such shells are used to deliver equipment to combat units.

Widespread use and various modifications are also reflected in the variability of the technical characteristics of Tomahawks:

• basing - surface, underwater, ground mobile, air;
• flight range - from 600 to 2500 km, depending on modification;
• length - 5.56 m, with starting accelerator - 6.25;
• diameter - 518 or 531 mm;
• weight - from 1009 to 1590 kg;
• fuel reserve - 365 or 465 kg;
• flight speed - 880 km/h.

Regarding control and guidance systems, various options are used, depending on the modification and target task. The accuracy of the attack also varies - from 5-10 to 80 meters.

Trident II

Trident (Trident) - American three-stage ballistic missiles. They run on solid fuel and are designed for launches from submarines. They were developed as a modification of the Poseidon shells with an emphasis on salvo fire and increased range.

Combining the technical characteristics of Poseidon made it possible to re-equip more than 30 submarines with new shells. Trident I entered service already in 1979, however, with the advent of second-generation missiles, they were withdrawn.

Trident II tests were completed in 1990, at which time new missiles began to enter service with the US Navy.

The new generation has the following technical characteristics:

• number of steps - 3;
• engine type - solid propellant rocket engine (solid propellant rocket engine);
• length - 13.42 m;
• diameter - 2.11 m;
• launch weight - 59078 kg;
• weight of the head part - 2800 kg;
• maximum range - 7800 km with full load and 11300 km with detachable units;
• guidance system - inertial with astro correction and GPS;
• hit accuracy - 90-500 meters;
• based on Ohio and Vanguard class submarines.

A total of 156 Trident II ballistic missile launches were carried out. The last one took place in June 2010.

R-36M "Satan"

Soviet R-36M ballistic missiles, known as "Satan" missiles, are among the most powerful in the world. They have only two stages and are intended for stationary mine installations. The main emphasis is on a guaranteed retaliatory strike in the event of a nuclear attack. Taking this into account, the mines can withstand even direct hits from nuclear warheads in the positioning area.

The new ballistic missile was supposed to replace its predecessor, the R-36. The development included all the achievements of rocket science, which made it possible to surpass the second generation in the following parameters:

• accuracy increased 3 times;
• combat readiness - 4 times;
• energy opportunities and guarantee period services increased by 1.4 times;
• the security of the launch silo is 15-30 times.

Testing of the R-36M began back in 1970. Over the course of several years, various launch conditions were tested. The shells were put into service in 1978-79.

The weapon has the following technical characteristics:

• basing - silo launcher;
• range - 10500-16000 km;
• accuracy - 500 m;
• combat readiness - 62 seconds;
• launch weight - about 210 tons;
• number of steps - 2;
• control system - autonomous inertial;
• length - 33.65 m;
• diameter - 3 m.

The head section of the R-36M is equipped with a set of means to overcome enemy missile defenses. There are multiple warheads with autonomous guidance, which allows you to hit several targets at once.

V-2 (V-2)

The V-2 was the world's first ballistic missile, developed by Wernher von Braun. The first tests took place at the beginning of 1942. On September 8, 1944, a combat launch was carried out, and a total of 3,225 bombing missions took place, mainly on British territory.

"V-2" had the following technical characteristics:

• length - 14030 mm;
• case diameter - 1650 mm;
• weight - without fuel 4 tons, starting weight - 12.5 tons;
• range - up to 320 km, practical - 250 km.

The V-2 also became the first rocket to make a suborbital space flight. During a vertical launch in 1944, an altitude of 188 km was reached. After the end of the war, the projectile became a prototype for the development of ballistic missiles in the USA and USSR.

"Topol M"

Topol-M is the first intercontinental ballistic missile developed in Russia after the collapse of the USSR. It was put into service in 2000 and formed the basis of the Russian Strategic Missile Forces.

Development of Topol-M began in the mid-1980s. The emphasis was on universal stationary and mobile-launched ballistic missiles “Universal”. However, in 1992, it was decided to use current developments in the creation of a new modern Topol-M rocket.

The first tests from a stationary launcher were carried out in 1994. Three years later, mass production began. In 2000, a launch was carried out from a mobile launcher, at which time the Topol-M was put into service.

The projectile has the following technical characteristics:

• number of steps - 3;
• fuel type - solid mixed;
• length - 22.7 m;
• diameter - 1.86 m;
• weight - 47.1 t;
• hit accuracy - 200 m;
• range - 11000 km.

The missile continues to be developed, especially in relation to the warhead. The emphasis is on defeating missile defenses, as well as using up to 6 warheads to successfully hit multiple targets.

Minuteman III (LGM-30G)

Minutemen III are American stationary-launched ballistic missiles. Adopted in 1970 and remain the basis missile forces USA. They are expected to remain in demand until 2020.

The development was based on the idea of ​​using solid fuel. Cheapness, ease of maintenance and reliability made the Minutemen more convenient than the previous Atlases and Titans. The emphasis was on creating enough ammunition in case of a first nuclear strike by the Soviet Union.

Minutemen III (LGM-30G) has the following technical characteristics:

• number of steps - 3;
• launch weight - 35 tons;
• rocket length - 18.2 m;
• head part - monoblock;
• longest range - 13,000 km;
• accuracy - 180-210 m.

The shells are regularly upgraded. The latest program began in 2004 and focuses on upgrading the engine's powertrain by replacing engine components.

"Tochka-U"

"Tochka" is a Soviet tactical missile system designed for a divisional unit. Since the end of 1980 he was transferred to the army unit. The Tochka-U modification began to be developed in 1986-88, and entered service in 1989. A distinctive feature from previous generations is the firing range increased to 120 km.

Technical characteristics of the Tochka-U modification:

• firing range - from 15 to 120 km;
• rocket speed - 1100 m/s;
• starting weight - 2010 kg;
• approach time to maximum distance - 136 seconds;
• preparation time for launch - 2 minutes from the ready state, 16 minutes from the traveling state.

The first combat use took place in 1994 in Yemen. Subsequently, the complexes were used during operations in the North Caucasus and South Ossetia. Since 2013 they have been used in Syria. Also used by the Houthis against Saudi Arabia in Yemen.

"Iskander"

Iskander is a Russian operational-tactical missile system. Designed to defeat anti-missile and air defense enemy. It has two modifications of missiles - Iskander-K and Iskander-M, which can be launched simultaneously from one launcher.

Iskander-M is designed for a high flight trajectory (up to 50 km), has decoy targets to counter missile defense, and also has high maneuverability. Hit targets at a distance of up to 500 km.

Iskander-K is one of the most effective cruise missiles in Russia. Designed for a low flight path (6-7 meters) with terrain contouring. The official range is 500 km, however, Western experts believe that these figures are underestimated to comply with the Treaty on the Elimination of Intermediate-Range and Short-Range Missiles. In their opinion, the real destruction range is 2000-5000 km.

The development of the Iskander complex began in 1988. The first public presentation took place in 1999, but the missiles continue to be refined. In 2011, tests of projectiles with new combat equipment and an improved guidance system were completed.

According to Western analysts, the Iskander complexes, in combination with the S-400 and Bastion complexes, form a reliable access denial zone for any enemy. In the event of a military confrontation, this will prevent NATO troops from moving and deploying close to Russia's borders without the risk of receiving unacceptable damage.

The technical characteristics of the Iskander complexes are presented by the following indicators:

• hit accuracy - 10-30 meters, for Iskander-M - 5-7 m;
• launch weight - 3800 kg;
• warhead weight - 480 kg;
• length - 7.3 m;
• diameter - 920 mm;
• rocket speed - up to 2100 m/s;
• destruction range - 50-500 km.

Iskander can use different warheads: fragmentation, concrete-piercing, high-explosive fragmentation. The missiles could potentially be equipped with nuclear warheads. According to the American analytical publication The National Interest, Iskander complexes are the most dangerous weapon in Russia.

R-30 "Bulava"

R-30 "Bulava" - solid fuel Russian ballistic missiles. Designed for launch from Project 955 Borei submarines. The development of shells began in 1998 with the goal of not only updating the country’s naval combat power, but also bringing it to a qualitatively new level.

The first successful tests took place in 2007 - from that moment mass production of most of the components began. Initially, the missiles were intended for two types of submarines - 941 "Akula" and 955 "Borey". However, it was decided to abandon the rearmament of the first category.

The actual adoption of the missiles into service took place in 2012. From this moment on, not only the mass production of shells begins, but also the equipment of storage facilities for them. The shells were officially put into service in 2018.

Technical characteristics of Bulava ballistic missiles:

• range - 8000-11000 km;
• accuracy - 350 m;
• launch weight - 36.8 tons;
• warhead weight - 1150 kg;
• number of steps - 3;
• launch container length - 12.1 m;
• the diameter of the first stage is 2 m.

The missile is capable of carrying up to 6 warheads. The emphasis is on improving guidance systems and countering missile defense, similar to the Topol-M missiles. It is expected that the effectiveness of this weapon will continue to increase.

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