From his very birth, a person is forced to interact with the world around him. Knowledge helps a person navigate it. He receives them in communication with people around him and in personal experience.

What underlies the process of acquiring knowledge? Does this process have the features of universality? Are there laws of the cognitive process that a person could use to improve his mind?

The answers to this and other questions, the approach to solving the problems existing in this area of ​​knowledge are given by the theory of knowledge or epistemology- section of philosophy.

Epistemology (theory of knowledge)- this is a section of philosophy (a branch of philosophical knowledge) in which problems of the nature of knowledge and its possibilities, the relationship of knowledge to reality are studied; the general preconditions of knowledge are explored; the conditions for its reliability and truth are identified.

There is an ancient wisdom: “You can feed people fish, but it is better to teach them to fish for themselves. This is more reliable for fighting hunger.” This wisdom can be paraphrased: “You can teach a person all his life, but it is better to teach him to acquire knowledge on his own. This is more reliable for a person’s spiritual development.” This goal is pursued by the theory of knowledge.

Cognition is the process of accumulating knowledge, increasing the amount of information a person needs for life.

Knowledge- the result of cognitive activity. They represent subjective images of reality in the human mind (ideas, concepts, meaningful skills, abilities, etc.).

One of the most important problems that has occupied and continues to occupy philosophers can be formulated as follows: “Are we able to know real world“Can a person consider his knowledge about the world to be a true reflection of reality?”

This problem of knowability gave rise to two directions in philosophy: one recognizes the knowability of the world, other- denies it to a greater or lesser extent. The second appears in the following forms.

• 1. Skepticism was already typical for ancient philosophy. The founder of these views is considered Pyrrho(IV-III centuries BC), and systematized Sextus Empiricus(N-III centuries). The main thesis is this: “It is impossible to say unequivocally about the ability of people to achieve reliable knowledge.”
• 2. Agnosticism lies in the assertion that there is no opportunity to obtain reliable knowledge. Prominent representatives of this position are considered D. Hume And I. Kant.

Why did such views arise? At all times, there have been a huge number of mythological, religious, philosophical, and scientific theories, and most of their authors claimed to be unconditionally true. Sooner or later, many concepts turned out to be wrong. The analysis of such results of human knowledge gave rise to conclusions about the impossibility of obtaining reliable knowledge. In addition, the following should be noted. All ancient theoretical constructions were inherently speculative; they were not subjected to practical testing due to the lack of a scientific and experimental foundation. Therefore, ancient skepticism (doubt) deserved a positive assessment. At the same time, not only the results were called into question, but also the tools of cognition - the senses and thinking. Therefore, skeptics put forward the position that one should refrain from giving an unambiguous answer to any question, including the question of the attainability of reliable knowledge.

Western European thought of the Middle Ages paid a lot of attention to the relationship between faith and reason (which ancient philosophers did not do) and introduced significant corrections to the ideas of skepticism. The views of theologians argued that the use of only natural means of knowledge (reason and sensory experience) cannot lead to true knowledge. Such knowledge comes to people through supernatural means, and although the truth of this knowledge cannot be rationally substantiated, one must unshakably believe in it. Thus, the problem of ancient skepticism was removed, since doubt in the teachings of that time was considered a form of heresy, since the authority of faith was higher than the authority of reason. Of course, healthy skepticism has existed at all times. This, for example, is proven by the ideas of such thinkers as G. Bruno, N. Copernicus and etc.

However, by the 17th century. philosophical skepticism begins to lose ground. On the one hand, it is being destroyed by new scientific discoveries (the number of supporters of epistemological optimism is growing), on the other hand, belief in the weakness of man in comparison with the Creator moves skeptics to a tougher position - agnosticism.

So, D. Hume(1711-1776) considered the question of the existence of material objects that cause our sensations to be theoretically open. He stated that we merely believe in the existence of any external thing. This belief is born of habit. Wherein D. Hume justified his position with the views J. Locke(1632-1704). J. Locke put forward the concept of primary and secondary qualities of things. A person perceives primary qualities adequately (size, weight, etc.), but secondary qualities of things only seem so to him (color, sound, etc.). Kant believed that the picture of the structure of the world is “drawn” by our consciousness, but how the world actually works is not given to a person to know.

How could views that completely deny the ability of human reason ever arise? What were they based on? Here's what to keep in mind. The scientific discoveries of modern times fundamentally shook the medieval picture of the world. New knowledge appeared where it was not expected at all. The earth began to spin under people’s feet, although everyone could see that it was standing still. The sun, which rises and sets before our eyes every day, was declared motionless. Suddenly it was discovered that the Earth was a ball on which someone was walking upside down, like flies on the ceiling.

These discoveries alone were enough to perplex normal person. If the Earth does not stand still, what then is solid and unshakable? If I don’t really know how I walk on the Earth, what do I even know? If my eyesight deceives me, what does not deceive me? Is there anything around me? For many centuries, medieval people knew how everything seemed to them. And suddenly they become convinced that they know absolutely nothing. Therefore, the agnosticism of Hume, Kant and other thinkers became an inevitable logical consequence of the general development of human thought.

However, at all times, the majority of representatives of various philosophical movements have defended and defend the position that there are no unknowable things in the world, but only those that have not yet been known. Thus, in most philosophical systems agnosticism is rejected as an epistemological principle.

At the same time, in philosophical teachings that affirm the principle of knowability, there are also significant differences.

Thus, there are concepts that claim that historical process knowledge will be completed. In particular, Hegel insisted on the possibility of achieving absolute knowledge about nature and society, not subject to further change or development. At the same time, he called his philosophy as a system of absolute knowledge. The conviction that knowledge of nature was approaching exhaustion was shared by many naturalists - Hegel's contemporaries. It was believed that Newton had basically completed the construction of mechanics, just as Euclid created geometry, in which nothing could be changed. In this capacity, geometry serves as a model for all sciences. This belief persisted until late XIX century.

In modern domestic science, a more flexible position is being adopted. There are no fundamental barriers to knowledge for the human mind. However, the process of cognition can never be completed, if only because the world itself is constantly changing.

How is the process of cognition carried out?

The personal experience of any person suggests that we cannot know anything except through the senses: sight, hearing, smell, touch and taste. A person deprived of all senses loses all ability to know. Each person, accumulating knowledge, goes through a series of steps. And the more steps he goes through, the more knowledge he will acquire, the higher his intellectual level will be. These stages are grouped into two stages: sensory cognition and rational (logical) cognition.

Sensory cognition. Here a person goes through three steps:

• 1. Feeling- This is a reflection of individual properties of objects using one of the senses. Depending on the structure of the sense organs and the state of a particular person (fatigue, intoxication, etc.), each of us has our own sensations. But in a normal, healthy state, we all feel the same things in approximately the same way. Those. sensation is a real image of a part of an object.
• 2. Perception- this is the reflection of an object in the form of a holistic sensory image using several senses. Very vivid or repeated sensations and perceptions are recorded in memory. When we remember past sensory images, e.g. former sensations and perceptions, our knowledge ascends to the next level.
• 3. Performance- this is a sensory image of an object that is currently not accessible to the senses.

The set of ideas is our primary knowledge about the world, our personal experience. To the question: “Do you imagine “such and such”?” - we can answer in the affirmative only if we felt and perceived this thing (phenomenon). By combining past perceptions, we can construct a sensory image of a future event or new thing. This procedure is called imagination. Creative activity is based on it.

But with the help of sensory images alone, it is impossible to penetrate into the essence of things and events, to recognize hidden connections between objects, to exchange complex knowledge and, in general, to study something that is not accessible to our senses. These difficulties were overcome after the emergence and development of verbal communication between people. Such communication gave rise to qualitative new stage knowledge.

Rational (logical) knowledge. There are also three stages of knowledge:

1. Concept.

Concept- generalization of a number of ideas according to some characteristic and denoting it with a word.

By capturing our sensory images with words, we transform them into logical images. This is how we preserve (save for longer period) our personal experience, we give the opportunity to other people to benefit from this experience.

Thus:

• have an idea- store traces of sensations and perceptions in memory;
• have an idea- correctly describe sensory images in words, know the definitions of words.

The accumulation of concepts indicates development sanity(ratio). Hence the name of the cognition stage. If a person has accumulated concepts and can express a certain thought with their help, this means that he has risen to a higher level of knowledge.

2. Judgment.

Judgment- a system of concepts (thought) reflecting the properties of objects and the connections between them.

Is it easy to make judgments? Even when the words and rules of sentence construction are familiar, this is quite difficult to do. To reach this stage, you need to make a qualitative leap: understand the essence of the object or phenomenon about which you want to make a judgment. We can only reason about what we understand. Those. ability understand is proven by the fact that a person describes in a coherent system of concepts the properties and connections of objects or phenomena hidden from perception. Quite often you hear the phrase: “I understand, but I can’t express it in words.” Such a statement is absurd. If a person understands something, he is able to express a judgment on this topic. Difficulty in reasoning means lack of understanding.

The exam requires the student to understand the material, i.e. the ability to freely reason on the proposed topic of the academic discipline. The ability to explain only some words means that he does not understand (or does not know) the material. IN in this case the student has only a few concepts on the subject. If he cannot explain the concepts from a given topic, but they seem familiar to him, it means that he does not have a single concept about this topic, but only has an idea, i.e. heard or read something.

3. Intelligence - the highest stage of development of reason. This stage is characterized by mastering the ability to build inferences.

Inference- this is the process and result of deriving new judgments about an object based on known ones.

A person who has developed this ability is called wise. A sage does not seek knowledge from other people or in books, he produces it himself. Wisdom can be expressed both in everyday concepts and judgments - worldly wisdom, and in scientific categories and theories -scientific wisdom.

Both stages of cognition cannot exist separately from each other. They are in dialectical unity. We comprehend any sensation and perception, i.e. we try to express it in words. We explain new words with the help of sensory images: drawings, diagrams, gestures, sound effects, etc. Therefore, both stages of cognition are important and necessary.

Thus, to summarize what has been said, we can note the following:

• 1. All knowledge is an accumulation of sensory images (ideas) and their meaningful descriptions (concepts and judgments).
• 2. Since sensuality is given to a person from birth, and reason appears later and develops difficultly, a person always imagines more than he understands.
• 3. Wisdom comes to a person as a result of acquisition great experience, developing rational skills thinking And creativity.

Creation- this is a human activity during which qualitatively new material and spiritual values ​​are created.

Creativity is studied by many sciences: philosophy, psychology, science, cybernetics, information theory, pedagogy, etc. At the same time, there is and is developing a special science that studies human creative activity - heuristic. The term “heuristics” is believed to come from the word “eureka!” (found!), an exclamation attributed to Archimedes when he discovered the fundamental law of hydrostatics.

The range of problems of heuristics is wide: it considers specific signs, features of creative activity, its structure, stages creative process, ratio various types creativity and much more. Creativity has many faces, in particular, there are different types of creativity such as technical, scientific, artistic, etc. In other words, creativity accompanies all types of practical and spiritual human activity.

• emergence of a problem; defining the subject of research, formulating the purpose and objectives of the research; collecting information, choosing a research approach;
• searching for ways to solve the problem, realizing the failure of attempts to solve it using existing knowledge and methods;
• intellectual, volitional, emotional “charge” of the problem, concentration of all mental abilities of a person around the problem;
• the sudden, usually intuitive birth of a new idea;
• description of the idea, registration of the received data into a logically coherent system;
• coordination of a new idea with the existing system of knowledge, determining the nature of its impact on other areas of theory and practice.

Concepts of creativity and intuition given their relative independence, they are very close: if creativity is associated with the creation of something fundamentally new, then intuition acts as one of the main psychological components of the creative process. As noted, rational thinking, methods and techniques of concept formation, and the laws of logic play an important role in obtaining new knowledge. But the experience of creative cognitive activity shows that ordinary logic in many cases turns out to be insufficient for solving qualitatively new problems. Story human culture knows many cases when a scientist, designer, artist or musician achieved something fundamentally new in their field intuitively. What does it mean?

The question of the essence of intuition is actively discussed in science and philosophy. It has been suggested that not everything that is considered intuitive really deserves that name. There is no need to mistake for intuition something that belongs to the realm of instincts and is characterized by automatic behavior in a similar environment. If we keep in mind that intuition is associated with comprehending the essence of objects, then we can use this well-known definition in the literature - intuition.

Intuition- this is the comprehension of the essence of an object by directly observing it without a clear understanding of the chain of reasoning and conclusions.

Intuition is direct knowledge in the sense that at the moment a new idea or image is put forward, it does not follow with logical necessity from existing sensory experience and theories. They also emphasize such features characteristic of intuition as suddenness. The solution to a problem often came unexpectedly, by chance, in seemingly unsuitable conditions for creativity.

The psychological conditions for the formation and manifestation of intuition include: 1) thorough professional preparedness of a person, deep knowledge of the topic and existing problems; 2) the search situation, the state of need to resolve the problem, the presence of search tension in the subject; 3) the presence of individual creativity, rich imagination, “disinhibition” in combining ideas and images.

Intuition should not be overestimated or its role in cognition ignored. Logical and intuitive are specific and complementary means of cognition. Intuition does not exist in absolute isolation from sensory and logical knowledge, which act as a mandatory general condition for the formation and manifestation of intuition. Science believes that logical thinking can also take place at the subconscious level and is included in the mechanism of the intuitive process itself. It should complement the intuitive decision that has already taken place and follow it.

Creativity reveals the original essence of a person and is a necessary form of self-affirmation of the human personality and humanity as a whole. An examination of creativity shows its deeply individual nature, great importance it contains the professionalism and talent of a person. At the same time, creativity is not a purely mysterious phenomenon. Scientists are actively researching the “mechanism” of intuition, the place and role of various factors in it. These results are especially important in scientific knowledge.

True. In any philosophical concept, one of the most important is the problem of truth. Apart from philosophy, no sciences study the problem of truth, but use a ready-made definition. Typically, truth is understood as adequate knowledge about something. This understanding comes from ancient times. There is no truth beyond knowledge. Things in themselves are neither true nor false; they exist regardless of what people know about them. The characteristic “true” (as well as “false”) refers only to knowledge.

True- this is an assessment of a judgment that accurately reflects the properties and connections of the object in question; it is knowledge that, by definition, does not depend on the interests of people.

Humanity achieves truth by overcoming misconceptions, which, nevertheless, act as a necessary companion to knowledge.

Misconception- this is an assessment of the content of knowledge that does not correspond to reality, but is accepted by a deluded person as true.

One should not assume that errors are just unfortunate accidents: they are inevitable companions of correct knowledge, moreover, its internal necessary elements. The human mind, rushing towards the truth, inevitably puts forward many assumptions, gets carried away by them, and often goes to extremes due to the historical limitations of its practice, as well as the creative assumptions of the mind. Misconceptions are also caused by the complexity of the problems being solved, the desire to implement plans in situations incomplete information. In scientific knowledge, misconceptions act as false theories, the fallacy of which is revealed only later by the further development of science (for example, the geocentric theory of Ptolemy). But without such ideas, the development of knowledge would be impossible.

Misconceptions have not only cognitive, but psychological and social bases. However, they should be distinguished from lies as a moral and psychological phenomenon.

Lie- this is a deliberate distortion of the actual state of affairs, with the purpose of misleading or deceiving someone.

A lie can be either an invention about what did not happen, or a deliberate concealment of what did happen. The basis for the existence of a lie can also be the logically incorrect thinking of the person receiving the information. Various logical tricks are built on this.

Knowledge striving for truth cannot do without the clash of different, sometimes opposing views, the struggle of beliefs, opinions, and discussions. It is impossible without misconceptions and mistakes. In research practice, errors are often made during observation, measurement, calculations, and assessments. However, there is no basis for a pessimistic view of knowledge as a continuous wandering in the darkness of fiction. Misconceptions in science are gradually being overcome, and the truth is being established. A true scientist must have the courage to express his opinion and even controversial positions, if he does not doubt their reliability, regardless of the pressure of non-scientific factors.

The system of scientific knowledge and experience are constantly changing and improving. Each stage of knowledge is limited by the level of development of science, the historical conditions of society, the level of practice, as well as the cognitive abilities of a given scientist.

Thus, it is quite obvious that it is not all our knowledge is truth. Moreover, not all true knowledge is completely true. This state of knowledge is described by separate concepts.

Absolute truth- this is accurate and comprehensive knowledge about the object.

By virtue of this definition, absolute truth can never be refuted.

Relative truth- this is accurate at a certain stage, but not exhaustive knowledge about the object.

Relative truth is supplemented and specified as human experience accumulates.

Immutable knowledge is often called dogma. A person who adheres to such knowledge is called a dogmatist. And this position in philosophy is called dogmatism. Is this good or bad? Reliance on unchanging knowledge is very often useful, as it helps to correctly navigate the world. Formulas like: time heals everything, it’s warm in the summer, don’t move at a red traffic light - provide us with confidence in our actions. On the other hand, outdated views limit human creativity. The opposite philosophical position is relativism. This is a statement that there is no absolute truth, all knowledge is relative.

A special tool is called upon to evaluate knowledge for truth - criterion of truth. The decision of what to take as a criterion has always been considered very important. In antiquity, the failure to find a suitable criterion led to the emergence of skepticism. In the Middle Ages there was a difference between correct and true knowledge, true knowledge is that which reveals the symbolic meaning of things invested in them by the act of creation. And correct knowledge is knowledge that has been tested by experience and brings practical benefits. At the same time, experience was not considered as an essential criterion, and references to it, in best case scenario, meant identifying one of the possible meanings of a thing; at worst, it was assessed as a delusion. In the late Middle Ages, French philosopher P. Abelard(1079-1142) put forward the position that truth can only be achieved as a result of comparing contradictory statements about a subject. In other words, his means of achieving truth is dispute (hence “Truth is born in dispute”). According to P. Abelard what is proven is true. This was very progressive, as it undermined blind faith in authoritative statements. From the beginning of the 17th century. The main criteria for the truth of scientific knowledge are experience and experiment. In modern domestic philosophical literature, this criterion is developed to a broader concept - social practice.

The essence of the cognition process- obtaining the most objective, complete and accurate knowledge about the world around us.

IN modern science, in addition to those already indicated, one more definition of the concept is often used "true" - This is the correspondence of the acquired knowledge to the content of the object of knowledge.

A characteristic feature of truth is the presence of an objective and subjective side to it.

The objective side shows us the truth in that part of it, the content of which does not depend on us, since it exists in objective reality. The objective side of truth is a prerequisite for such a feature as concreteness. The specificity of truth is the dependence of the acquired knowledge on the connections and interactions inherent in certain phenomena, on the conditions, place and time in which they exist and develop.

The subjective side points to the fact that truth is always subjective in its form, since when it is received in the process of cognition, there is an interaction between the object and the subject of cognition, in which the consciousness of the latter takes a direct part.

Almost any truth is objective in its content, but relative in its form.

Philosophers highlight several types of truth: everyday(everyday) scientific(which, in turn, is divided into truth in the field of mathematics, physics, biology, chemistry, history, etc.), moral, artistic etc. In other words, the types of truth correspond to the types of knowledge.

The driving force of the cognition process, as well as the criterion of truth, is practice.

Practice- active human activity in interaction with the material world around him.

Practice is characterized by the following features: purposefulness, objective-sensual nature, transformation of the surrounding reality.

Purposefulness is manifested in the creation by people of certain ideal models, which they subsequently strive to embody in the surrounding reality. The object-sensual nature reflects the fact that in the process of practice a person directly encounters material objects of the surrounding world (unlike, for example, mental, spiritual activity, within the framework of which such contact does not occur). And, as a result, it transforms and changes these objects.

There are many types of practice: social production, socio-political, scientific experimentation, medical, family and household, etc.

In the process of practice, not only the reality surrounding a person changes, but also the individual himself. Practice affects his senses, consciousness, and thinking. There is mutual enrichment of the individual, society and nature.

But practice is contradictory regarding the nature of the results of cognition: on its basis, various kinds of misconceptions are often formed, unintentional inconsistencies of any judgments or concepts with the cognizable object.

Misconception- this is false knowledge accepted as true.

The role of misconceptions in cognition is ambiguous. On the one hand, error leads the knower away from the truth and interferes with knowledge. But on the other hand, it can contribute to the creation of problematic situations that serve as an impetus for further study of reality.

In addition to practice, there are other criteria of truth, in particular, formal-logical, which is used in conditions where it is not possible to rely on practice (for example, identifying logical contradictions in mathematical reasoning).

The process of discovering the truth is a long process. Truths can take decades and even centuries to form. In fact, truth is a process; it is in constant development. Along with it, practice also develops, which, in spite of everything, still remains the most reliable criterion for establishing the truth.

Scientific knowledge. Scientific is a special type of cognition, distinguished by specific characteristics. Usually indicate the following distinctive features: firstly, this is necessarily a purposeful process; secondly, it is activity based on consciously applied methods.

One of the founders scientific approach in cognition F. Bacon wrote that until the 17th century. discoveries were made by chance, not methodically; There would be many more discoveries if researchers were armed with the right method. What is not done in a timely manner is done in vain. A man hobbling along a straight road will outrun a man running but lost on the path. F. Bacon considered means that improve cognition:

• 1) tools that improve the ability of human perception - tools;
• 2) tools that improve human thought itself - methods of thinking.

In his opinion, without a scientific method, one should not undertake research at all, since the result will be insignificant.

Traits of scientific knowledge:

• process aimed at discovering new knowledge;
• scientific knowledge is characterized by systematicity;
• it is characterized by strict evidence;
• it aims to reveal the laws in the area being studied.

In addition, scientific research is characterized by a special understanding of the object of knowledge and a way of consolidating and formalizing the results obtained.

Object of scientific research- a certain area of ​​reality, covering a whole class of similar phenomena, their totality.

Since the object of knowledge is too complex for a specific study, it is usually studied in parts. Therefore, another concept was introduced.

Subject of study- this is a certain cut, aspect, angle of view from which the object of knowledge is viewed. results scientific research embodied in scientific works(articles, monographs, textbooks, dissertations, etc.).

Developing scientific knowledge undergoes a successive change of the following forms: fact, problem, hypothesis, theory.

Science does not just spontaneously accumulate facts, it obtains them consciously and purposefully. It should be noted that the term "fact" V scientific literature used in two meanings:

• 1) a fact as an event that is actually happening or has already happened (fact of reality);
• 2) a fact as a description of a given event in a certain language. If a fact is comprehended and recorded in the language of any science, then there is scientific fact. Fixation in other systems of concepts gives us a mythological, religious fact or other types of facts.

A conscious attitude towards the accumulation of facts makes this work easier by narrowing the search front. The researcher determines what kind of facts he is going to accumulate, from what area, under what conditions, what means he will use, etc. It must be remembered that a scientific fact is an understanding of a real phenomenon from a certain theoretical point of view. Therefore, the truth of facts is determined by the truth of the applied theory, that is scientific facts can be either true or false.

Scientific facts are recognized as false when they do not correspond to real phenomena, and when the theory on the basis of which the phenomenon is described is proven to be false.

The first stage of scientific knowledge ends with the assessment of facts. The next stage is associated with the emergence of facts that cannot be explained using existing knowledge. A problematic situation arises - a conscious contradiction between new facts and existing theory. In this case, it is necessary to make a dialectical leap in knowledge: to give a new explanation of the event, i.e. develop an old or build a new theory.

Thus, scientific problem is a question that requires new knowledge to answer. It is a natural stage in the development of scientific knowledge. Science cannot progress without solving more and more new problems. The absence of problems would lead to the cessation of research, i.e. to the cessation of the production of new knowledge. Therefore, the task of an inquisitive mind is to pose and solve scientific problems.

Statement of a scientific problem provides for: separation of explained (known) facts from facts requiring explanation; formulation of a question expressing the main meaning of the problem; setting specific tasks to solve it.

Solving a scientific problem begins with putting forward a hypothesis.

Hypothesis- this is an informed assumption that does not contradict reliable facts, laws, proven scientific provisions.

Since the hypothesis, along with old knowledge, also contains new knowledge, it must be subject to verification. Practical test - this is the correlation of a hypothetical value with actual reality or with the result of an experiment. Theoretical check - This is the correlation with known facts of as many logically derived consequences as possible from the hypothesis. Proven hypothetical knowledge constitutes a scientific discovery. It becomes a new element of an old theory or forms a new theory. Theory- systematized proven knowledge about any fragment of reality.

The development of a theory is carried out in the course of constant refinement of its provisions on the basis of newly obtained facts. The cycle ends: to confirm or refute a new theory, new facts are needed.

This nature of development is inherent in all scientific knowledge. It, as already indicated, is impossible without relying on appropriate methods.

The word "method" translated from Greek language means the path to the goal. In relation to knowledge, it is used in the sense of “path to knowledge”, “path to truth”.

Methods- unique tools with the help of which science obtains, develops and tests knowledge, moves from empiricism to theory and from it to practice.

To solve scientific problems, many methods are used, which can be classified in different ways. The most common basis for classification is degree of generality. On this basis, three groups of methods are distinguished: philosophical methods; general scientific methods; specific (private scientific) methods.

Philosophical method - this is a fundamental principle that regulates all cognitive and practical activity. In Russian science, the method of materialist dialectics is considered dominant. Other combinations of fundamental philosophical principles are also possible.

General scientific methods - These are those techniques and operations that have been developed through the efforts of all or large groups of sciences and that are used to solve general cognitive problems. These methods are divided into methods-approaches And methods-techniques. TO first group include substantive, normative, systemic, structural-functional, activity-based, historical, anthropological, sociological, cultural and other approaches. These approaches orient the researcher to the appropriate aspect of considering the object being studied.

Second group methods are divided into empirical And theoretical. Empirical research is based on the direct practical interaction of the researcher with the object being studied. In theoretical research there is no direct practical interaction with objects. At this level, an object can only be studied indirectly, in a thought experiment, but not in the course of real action.

The universal empirical method is observation, by which is meant the purposeful sensory perception of the facts of reality. This method is characterized by relative limitations and passivity. These shortcomings are overcome by applying another empirical method. Experiment - a method in which, at the will of the researcher, both the object of knowledge and the conditions for its functioning are formed. This method allows you to reproduce processes the required number of times.

• analysis - this is a method of mentally dividing the object under study into certain elements with the aim of in-depth and consistent knowledge of them and the connections between them;
• synthesis - it is a method of mentally reconstructing the whole on the basis of known parts and their relationships;
• abstraction- this is a mental separation of individual elements, properties, relationships of an object and consideration of them in isolation both from the object as a whole and from its other parts;
• specification- correlation of abstract ideas and concepts with reality;
• deduction- this is a reliable conclusion from knowledge of a greater degree of generality to knowledge of a lesser degree of generality;
• induction- this is a probabilistic conclusion from knowledge of a lesser degree of generality to new knowledge of a greater degree of generality;
• analogy- a conclusion about the belonging of a certain feature to the subject being studied on the basis of similarity in essential features with another subject;
• modeling - a method of indirect cognition of an object using its model.

This, in brief, is the characteristic of general scientific methods and techniques.

Specific (special scientific) methods represent a concretization of general scientific methods in relation to the study of objects of individual sciences. For example, in lawmaking, the method of legal experiment can be used, through which the effectiveness of legal norms is tested on the experience of a particular region. In political science, there is a branch of research called “comparative studies.” It is based on the comparison method political systems, systems of law, etc. various countries.

Scientific knowledge cannot, of course, be directly verified by practical experience every time, although practice, as was said earlier, is the criterion of truth. A scientific theory is considered valid even if its truth is logically confirmed.

Practice, as a way of transforming the world, is also subject to universal dialectical laws and is subject to corresponding negation.

One of the features social cognition is that it is aimed at understanding the future. Society and every person are extremely interested not only in anticipating wars, economic shocks, natural or man-made disasters, but also in the everyday calculation of the “natural” course of things: market prices, reserves of raw materials, energy resources, etc. Long time in history, these needs were satisfied only in the field of large-scale phenomena (foresight of social revolutions) on the basis of general assessments; As for specific assumptions, they were based on empirical, often pre-scientific techniques.

In the 20th century, when the polysemy became obvious social development, the scientific foundations of social foresight were formed in the form of an emerging science - futurology(this term was proposed by a German sociologist O. Flechtheim). Research into the problems of the future unfolded in many directions: the influence of scientific and technological progress on social life, ecology, personal development, etc. General assessments (foresights) needed to be supplemented with specific research based on clearly meaningful quantitative techniques and methods. The field of future research, based on the application of scientific methods, is called - forecasting.

Modern social forecasting dates back to the works that appeared in the late 40s. During this period, the effectiveness of using various forecasts in managing social processes was realized. At the end of the 50s and in the 60s, a wave of forecasts swept through - scientific, technical, socio-economic, demographic, military-political. By the beginning of the 80s, forecasts increasingly began to shift to the area of ​​searching for contours " new civilization", ways to solve global problems were substantiated. In the 90s, forecasts began to develop within the framework of the concept of sustainable world development, which began to be understood as the self-sustaining development of world civilization without damage to nature, ensuring equal access to material and spiritual benefits and their fair distribution.

Under forecast one should keep in mind a probabilistic judgment about future events with relatively high degree reliability. The purpose of forecasting is, based on an analysis of the state and behavior of the system in the past and the study of trends in changes in influencing factors, to determine the possibilities of its development in the future, to reveal options for the situation in which the social system will find itself.

In modern social science there is a large variety of ways of knowing and forms of knowledge. One can distinguish such paths as practical and spiritual, rational and irrational. Apparently, other classifications are possible. As for the forms of human knowledge, here we can also indicate classifications on various grounds: mythological, religious, everyday and scientific; empirical and theoretical; fundamental and applied and others.

A special place in cognitive activity is occupied by self-knowledge (reflection) - a person’s understanding of the state and development of his own spirituality and external activity. The goal of self-knowledge is to understand one’s own essence. Since essence is the basic properties and connections of an object, a person cannot know himself in isolation from the world around him. By getting to know himself, a person gets to know the world, since he is an element of it; by getting to know the world, he will be able to understand himself more clearly.

Review questions:

• 1. What does epistemology study?
• 2. How can we define the concepts of “knowledge of the world” and “self-knowledge of a person”?
• 3. What are the stages of sensory knowledge?
• 4. What are the stages of rational knowledge?
• 5. What are intuition and creativity?
• 6. What are the features of scientific knowledge?
• 7. Name the concepts of truth.
• 8. Name the main criteria of truth.
• 9. What are the features of scientific knowledge?
• 10. What are the forms of scientific knowledge?
• 11. How is the system of methods of scientific knowledge constructed?
• 12. What is truth and what is error?
• 13. What is the difference between absolute and relative truth?
• 14. What are the features of social cognition?

The “Know Yourself” lesson is dedicated to yourself important issue in the life of every person: who am I? Determining your place in life is the most difficult and most responsible choice that everyone decides for themselves.

This means that each person has a certain set of qualities inherent in nature. Unfortunately, people don't have technical description, like mechanisms, therefore self-knowledge of a person lasts throughout his life. It is very important to reveal the basic inclinations in yourself as early as possible, otherwise it may happen that “it will be excruciatingly painful for the years spent aimlessly.” A person can spend his entire life doing the wrong thing and at the end of his life feel empty and useless.

Since ancient times, people have been interested in the purpose of man in this world. It may seem that all people are equal: two arms, two legs, the ability to think and create. But we are all very different, as are our capabilities, abilities and talents. And if a person is not engaged in the activity for which he is intended, most likely he will not be good at it. For example, if a person does not have an inclination for making pottery, then he will not be a very good potter. Even if he tries very hard, a person can learn this craft, but the pots he makes will not be masterpieces.

Rice. 2. Potter with his products ()

A person is capable of learning, but not everything is given to him to the same extent. There are things for which we have a natural ability, but, in principle, man, as an adaptive being, is capable of mastering almost any field of activity. Of course, the quality of such work will be worse than that of a naturally capable person. For example, almost all people can draw, but not everyone can be called an artist. The artist has a keen sense of the plasticity of movement and knows how to select colors in such a way that it evokes admiration among those around him. A drawing by a person who does not have the gift of drawing will, at best, be just an illustration.

Rice. 3. V. Van Gogh “Starry Night” ()

In order to know your abilities, you need to know yourself. The most important component of self-knowledge is self-esteem. If, on the advice of Kozma Prutkov, “look at the root” of the word, then you can guess that self-knowledge is how a person evaluates himself. The point is that a person independently assesses all his qualities and abilities. Self-assessment may be correct, i.e. a person knows and correctly evaluates his merits and is aware of his shortcomings. Incorrect self-esteem can be overestimated or underestimated. Incorrect self-esteem in both the first and second cases can prevent a person from being realized in life. With inflated self-esteem, people set the bar too high for themselves, and the disappointment from unachieved goals can be too great, which will undoubtedly affect the person’s emotional and psychological state. If self-esteem is low, then, out of confidence in your inadequacy, you can bury your talent without learning about its existence, without realizing your virtues. The great classic W. Shakespeare in the tragedy “Julius Caesar” says this:

Cassius

...Can you see your face, Brutus?

Brutus

No, Cassius; because we can see ourselves

Only in reflection, in other objects.

Cassius

That's true.

And worthy of regret, Brutus,

Why don't you have mirrors in which

You could have hidden your valor

And see your shadow.

Rice. 4. Brutus and Cassius ()

Cassius tells Brutus that he underestimates himself and because of this he cannot solve the political situation that prevailed at that time.

For correct self-esteem, you need to clearly understand the set of qualities that you possess, both positive and negative. The best solution in this case would be to sit down and honestly make a list of your pros and cons. After all, every person, as Taoist wisdom says, consists of positive and negative principles. But in every positive aspect there is a negative nuance and vice versa, just like a white fish has a black dot, and a black one has a white dot.

It is important for a person to maintain a healthy balance between good and evil and clearly understand what he is. Therefore, it is important to sit down and describe all your qualities as honestly as possible. This is necessary in order to imagine what you are capable of and realize your weaknesses in difficult situations. Knowing yourself will help you achieve success in life and overcome its difficulties. We told you that the one who owns the information owns the world. Self-knowledge is necessary in order to form oneself in the future as a full-fledged independent person who sets adequate goals and achieves them. There are goals that are, in principle, impossible to achieve, and there are goals that are unattainable for a particular person. People are not equal to each other, everyone has characteristics and some are given more and others less. Great philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche said that justice requires objectivity, but all people are not equal: not equal, physically, psychologically, morally, not mentally equal. It's normal that we are not equal, which is why proper self-esteem is so important. Only knowing your strengths and knowing how to deal with your weaknesses is it possible to become a strong, healthy, successful person.

Some of you, having assessed your strengths and weaknesses with our advice, may discover that they are the most ordinary people, in whom, at first glance, there is nothing remarkable. Perhaps this is really true, even most likely this is true. But human nature is such that every person has a certain inclination hidden that can be developed into talent. The main thing is to detect such a deposit in time. This is the problem of self-knowledge - you need to find answers to the questions: “Who are you?”, “Why did you come into this world?”, “What talent is hidden in you?” Some people are lucky and their talent is on the surface. For example, in V.-A. Mozart's talent manifested itself in preschool age, and shone at the age of 6-7, reaching its apogee in his youth. Blaise Pascal, for example, grew up so gifted that, without even knowing the names of the figures, he independently proved Euclid’s 32nd theorem on the sum of the angles of a triangle.

But not everyone is so lucky, so it is very important to find your talent as early as possible.

Sometimes “dormant” talents are hidden in a person, i.e. those that are not in demand nowadays. For example, computer games are very popular now, and there are guys who seem to be born for them: they very quickly find artifacts, move to the next levels, and easily master the controls. Such people are called gamers. There are even tournaments among gamers where these people earn valuable prizes and cash rewards. A hundred years ago, when there was no computer games, their abilities could be useless, unless, of course, they could channel them in the right direction. The peculiarity of a person is that he is given more than one talent; we have many inclinations. Our main task is to discover them and develop them, and then we can talk about a comprehensively developed personality, not infringed or offended by time.

1. Vinogradova N.F., Gorodetskaya N.I., Ivanova L.F. and others. Social studies 6th grade / Ed. Bogolyubova L.N., Ivanova L.F. - Enlightenment, 2004. ().

2. Kravchenko A.I., Pevtsova E.A., Social studies: Textbook for 6th grade of educational institutions. - 12th ed. - M.: LLC "TID" Russian word- RS", 2009. - 184 p. ().

3. Barabanov V.V., Nasonova I.P. Social studies 6th grade / Ed. Bordovsky G.A., 2007.

4. Nikitin A.F., Nikitina T.I. Social science. 6th grade. Bustard, 2013.

2. Dictionaries and encyclopedias on Academician ().

1. Answer the question on page 43. Vinogradova N.F., Gorodetskaya N.I., Ivanova L.F. etc. Social studies 6th grade. / Ed. Bogolyubova L.N., Ivanova L.F. - Enlightenment.

2. Complete Task No. 5 on page 45. Vinogradova N.F., Gorodetskaya N.I., Ivanova L.F. etc. Social studies 6th grade. / Ed. Bogolyubova L.N., Ivanova L.F. -Education.

3. * Write a short story about human talent.

Social studies, 5th grade. Lesson notes

Social studies lesson notes in 5th grade: How a person learns about the world and himself

Description of material: Knowledge as a human need. How a person understands the world and himself. Ways of knowing the world, man, society: sensory, rational knowledge. Self-knowledge. The material will be interesting and useful for social studies teachers and psychologists, since the notes contain psychological tests.
The purpose of this topic is to form ideas about human cognition at a level accessible to fifth-graders. Getting to know her is propaedeutic in nature. The personal experience of fifth-graders makes it possible to deepen and expand their understanding of play, study and work as the main types of activity.
Author of the material: Afanasyeva Rimma Akhatovna, social studies teacher
Place of work: MKOU "Unyugan Secondary School No. 1", Unyugan village, Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug-Yugra

Topic: How a person understands the world and himself

Goals and objectives: to form a concept of knowledge, cognition, thinking and self-knowledge, its levels; explain with the help of which cognition is carried out, what is its result; determine the role of knowledge and self-knowledge in human life and society; introduce concepts and terms: cognition, knowledge, thinking, self-knowledge.
Planned results: students will learn to characterize levels of cognition; compare social objects; find similarities and differences between cognition and self-knowledge; will be able to explain the mechanism of knowing the world and oneself; master the principle of working with a textbook, the text of which contains diagrams, additional text and questions; learn to participate in heuristic conversation and discussion; work with documents, perform problematic tasks; apply group work skills.
Formed UUD: meta-subject: determine goals and methods of interaction; plan general ways of working; share knowledge between team members to make effective joint decisions; form target settings educational activities, build a sequence of necessary operations; carry out comparison and classification according to specified criteria; personal: formation of sustainable motivation to learn and consolidate new things; awareness of the importance of the process of cognition and self-knowledge.
Equipment: textbook, package with working material for working with tests, multimedia presentation.
Lesson type: study.

During the classes

I. Organizational moment
Turn to each other, look into each other's eyes, smile at each other, wish each other a good working mood in class. Now look at me. I also wish you to work together and discover something new.
II. Examination homework. Updating knowledge on the previous lesson topic.
Now we will repeat the material from the previous lesson. To do this, let's conduct a test. On your desks there are pieces of paper with the test assignment. Sign and proceed.
Test.
Last name of student ___________________________ grade 5 -
Test No. 1 on the topic “Society and Man”
1. Social science includes elements of several sciences. Including:
1) sociology, political science
2) geography, physics
3) biology, mathematics
4) astronomy, chemistry.
2. Fifth-grader Arseny is a good student, puts on school plays, goes in for sports and strives to win the children's city swimming championship, helps his mother take care of his little brother. All this characterizes Arseny as:
1) student
2) friend
3) personality
4) son
3. Fifth-grader Vera performs actions and deeds every day. Which of the following is an action?
1) gets on the bus
2) gives way to an elderly woman
3) goes up to the apartment by elevator
4) sits down to do homework
4. Spiritual and social needs are the highest human needs. These include:
1) food, clothing
2) communication, knowledge
3) things, money
4) car computer
5. Are the following judgments about a person true?
A. Man is a biological and social being.
B. Man is only a social being
1) only A is correct
2) only B is correct
3) both judgments are correct
4) both judgments are correct
6. Are the following judgments about self-esteem correct?
A. Self-esteem is a person’s assessment of his qualities, abilities, advantages and disadvantages.
B. Self-esteem should always be high.
1) only A is correct
2) only B is correct
3) both judgments are correct
4) both judgments are incorrect
(It takes 8-10 minutes to complete the test, after which the work is handed over to the teacher)
III. Motivational-target stage
Listen to the parable.
One day a novice came to the elder and asked:
Father, explain to me why I, having the same eyes as yours, often do not notice what you notice. The elder left the room and after some time returned, holding in his hands an ancient manuscript in a language unfamiliar to the novice. Unfolding it, he said:
What do you see? The novice, not wanting to reveal his ignorance, replied:
I see centuries of wisdom in this manuscript. Then the elder said:
In fact, this is a note from a Greek merchant, and I know and see this because one day, not being afraid to admit to myself that I really don’t know anything, I learned this language.
Questions for the class
- What is the parable about?
- What is its meaning?
- What does this parable have to do with our lesson?
(Students' answers.)
The topic of our lesson: “How a person understands the world and himself.”
Guess what we will talk about in class?
What questions do we have to answer?
(Students' answers.)
Lesson Plan
1. What is cognition.
2. Ways of knowing.
3. Self-knowledge.
IV. Introduction to new material
- Tell me, have you all read the novel by the English writer Daniel Defoe “Robinson Crusoe” or perhaps you have watched the film?
- What helped him survive on the island?
- How did he start the fire, how did he determine the time, how did he get his food?)
(Children's reasoning)
Conclusion: it means that Robinson Crusoe knew how to light a fire, get food, and could tell the time without having a watch.
V. Work on the topic of the lesson
1.What is cognition.
Answer the questions.
- What distinguishes a person from other living beings?
(The ability to think, ask questions and seek answers to them.) We understand the world, establish connections between objects and phenomena, and thanks to this we learn to live, rejoice and achieve our goals. Scientists claim that the need for knowledge is given to man by nature.
Exercise: listen to the poem and answer the question: what human quality is it talking about?
Grandmother encyclopedia.
N.Ivanova
Grandma has a grandson and granddaughter
Why and Why.
All day your questions
The snub-nosed people ask:
“Why green leaf?
Why does the artist sing?
Why does a cat have a mustache?
Why does a chair have legs?
Why does the fire burn?
Why does the eagle soar?
Why does grass grow?
Why are the leaves making noise?
- What are we talking about? (About curiosity)
So it's about curiosity. Curiosity prompted people to comprehend the laws of nature. This knowledge often came as an insight, a discovery. For example, the famous physicist Isaac Newton, as legend has it, discovered the law of universal gravitation at the moment when an apple fell from a tree directly on his head. And the chemist Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev saw the table chemical elements in a dream.
- Remember, do animals have curiosity?
- If yes, give examples of animal curiosity.
- What senses do they use in the process of cognition?
(Students' answers.)
Animals are naturally curious. This is how they satisfy their natural needs. They sniff, look around, listen - and this is based on the instinct of safety and self-preservation.
- Why does a person participate in the process of cognition? (Children's answers.)
Why does a person need this knowledge?
Knowledge is the result of cognition. Only information acquired by a person becomes knowledge.
- How do we gain knowledge?
Through knowledge. Cognition is an activity aimed at receiving, storing, processing and systematizing information.
- What is information? How do we get information?
We read the definitions in the textbook on page 49.
2. Ways of knowing
So, the process of cognition has no boundaries. How does a person know the world?
Listen to the poem, what is it about?
Sense organs.
S.Volkov
There are five assistants in your service,
Without noticing, you use them jokingly:
Eyes were given to you to see,
And the ears are used to hear,
Tongue in mouth to understand the taste
And the nose is able to distinguish the smell,
Hands - to caress, to work,
Drink water from a mug.
And there is no need for your anxiety,
They will always help you.
-What do you think this poem is about? (Sense organs.)

What are they needed for? (Explore the world, yourself)
- What should we call this type of knowledge? (Sensual)
- How do you understand the word sensual?
- How can you explain and list what exactly and with the help of which sense organs can be known? (Examples of children.)
- How else can you explore the world? (With the help of reason, mind, thinking).
- What should we call this type of knowledge? (Children's answers)
They call it rational, that is, which is carried out with the help of reason (mind), intellect, mental activity.
- Find the definition of thinking in the textbook. (Student reads out.)
Let's look at the picture in the textbook, on page 51. See what ways of knowing the photographs illustrate? Give reasons for your answer.
So, the process of cognition has no boundaries. How does a person understand the world around him? There are two main ways:
sensual;
rational.
- What unites these two stages of cognition?
(Students’ answers, recording general conclusions.)
1. The processes of cognition are in unity.
2. The processes of cognition mutually complement each other.
3. Two stages of cognition create a holistic impression of what is seen.
Let's check how you have learned the new material. Read three statements and say by what means of knowledge truth was determined.
1. Planet Earth is a ball. How did people become convinced that the Earth is a sphere? (This truth is the result of scientific research, the result of rational knowledge.)
2. If you don’t know the ford, don’t stick your nose into the water. (This truth is everyday, the result of common sense.)
3. A sad time, the charm of the eyes... (Sometimes the means of art (poetry, painting) - a way of sensory cognition - allow us to find out the truth.)
V. Physical break
Name the activities present in our lesson (educational, creative, labor, communication)
- What type of activity has not yet been named? (game activity)
- Can we get involved in gaming activities?
- How? What can you suggest? (Have a physical education minute)
-Which of you can carry it out? (2-3 students who wish to take a physical break)
Once again we have a physical education session,
Let's bend over, come on, come on!
Straightened up, stretched,
And now they’ve bent over backwards.
(bending forward and backward)
My head is tired too.
So let's help her!
Right and left, one and two.
Think, think, head.
(head rotation)
Even though the charge is short,
We rested a little.
3.But a person learns not only the world around him, but also himself. What do you think this process is called? (Self-knowledge.)
- What is self-knowledge connected with? (With self-esteem.)
That's right, self-knowledge is related to self-esteem. By evaluating himself, a person can obtain true knowledge (by looking at himself rationally), or false knowledge (that is, by exaggerating his own merits about himself). It is very important to compare yourself with yourself, what you were yesterday, a month ago, a year ago. Ask yourself these questions and do not be lazy to answer them. Thus, the process of cognition is aimed not only at replenishing information, a person also learns about himself . This process is called self-knowledge.
The great philosopher Socrates loved to repeat this saying: “Know yourself.”
- Why does a person know himself?
(Students' answers.)
To know yourself means to understand what strengths and weaknesses you have, what you are capable of. How to do this?
Workshop. Psychologists have developed a large number of tests - simple, but effective ways, with the help of which you can find answers to almost all your questions. Moreover, with the help of tests you can learn a lot of interesting things not only about yourself, but also about the people around you.
Today we will try to figure out what is closer to you, whether you feel good with your friends. At the same time, let's see what type of activity you should prefer.
Exercise
It is important to write down your answers as you complete the task.
I. Draw 8 circles. Look at the circles and determine where you are? Place a tick in the selected circle.
II. Draw two rows of circles. There are seven circles in each row. Do you live with your dad and mom? Write inside the first circle (it is specially highlighted), suppose “mom”. Or "dad". If the first one is “mom”, then write “dad” in the circle below. Look carefully at the row of circles and determine where you are. First in the first row, then in the second. Check the boxes.
III. Draw two groups of circles - nine and two two circles separately. Find yourself among them. Mark with a tick or cross.
(You can prepare cards for this task in advance for students, that is, draw circles, as required by the task, and students will only arrange and sign on them what is required.)
Evaluation of results
I. Speed ​​of execution. If you quickly completed the task, then there is nothing difficult in your relationships with people, you are a pleasant person to talk to. If you hesitated for a long time to check the box, we can say that you are an indecisive person and you have few friends.
Tick ​​on the left - you feel good in a team, you are a sociable person.
The check mark on the right means you are obviously having trouble with your surroundings; you prefer loneliness.
Tick ​​in the middle - it all depends on the mood. You don’t particularly stand out in the class, you don’t strive to be a leader, but you don’t strive to become an outright outcast either.
II. The one who was written first is the most important thing in your life.
You wrote to your mother - you focus on your mother, communicate with her more, and with any question you will go to her first. They wrote to dad - this happens. This means that you are more comfortable with your father than with your mother.
If you checked the box next to their circles, then you have a trusting and sincere relationship with your parents.
Are you in good relations, but everyone has their own secrets - 3-4 mugs from the beginning.
Your relationships are unimportant if you see yourself in circles farthest from your parents.
III. How well do you feel in the “pack”.
You have found yourself among the nine circles. The pack accepts you, you can get lost in it and be one of them. You feel like you are just above the pack (top row), an equal member (middle row).
You have chosen a circle to the side. The team expelled you, or you yourself left. Or maybe you write poetry and dream of soaring far, far away from here? This means you are aware of your individuality.
VI. Homework
1. Read § 7, p. 48-53 textbooks.
2. Prepare to participate in a discussion on the topic “Does self-knowledge make a person better?”
VII. Reflection(Children have these questions written on pieces of paper or on a slide in the presentation, to which they give answers.)
- What do I already know about self-esteem, about my own personality?
- What about what happened today upset me?
- What was good in the lesson?
- What feelings did I have?
- Does the lesson provide opportunities for creative growth?
- What will this lesson give me for my personal life?
The Chinese philosopher, resident of the kingdom of Chu, Lao Tzu (579-499 BC) said: “Life teaches only those who study it. You can know others by yourself. Be attentive to your thoughts - they are the beginning of actions.” Study yourself, know yourself, discover yourself!

Slide 2

What is cognition?

Name the association words for the word “COGNITION”

Slide 3

Cognition is a process of mental activity, the result of which is new knowledge about the world around us (reflection of objective reality in the consciousness of the subject)

Slide 4

COGNITION Truth practice A process aimed at comprehending the truth Correspondence of the acquired knowledge to the content of the object of knowledge

Slide 5

Two sides of cognition

SUBJECT Person Society OBJECT Subject World Person

Slide 6

Two stages of knowledge

Slide 7

Dictionary

Sensation is a reflection in the consciousness of individual properties and qualities of an object Perception is a holistic image of an object that arises during direct interaction with the outside world Representation is a holistic image of an object that arises without direct interaction with the outside world Concept is a thought that reflects the general and essential features of a cognizable object Judgment is a thought , reflecting the connection between concepts Inference - a thought that affirms or denies something

Slide 8

How can you gain true knowledge?

AGNOSTICS, SKEPTITS, OPTIMISTS

Slide 9

"Know yourself"

“Stupidity does not lie in knowing little, but in not knowing oneself and thinking that you know what you don’t know.” Socrates

Slide 10

“What does it take to see clearly? Do not look through yourself" (P. Chaadaev) "No one can judge others until he learns to judge himself" (I. Goethe) "The most important result of any education is self-knowledge" (E. Feuchtersleben) "A person stands in front of his own “I am like a dog in front of a door that needs to be opened towards itself” (A. Kruglov)

Slide 11

Self-awareness is the ability to evaluate oneself, one’s actions; the image of “I”.

Slide 12

The image of “I” is the individual’s attitude towards himself

Slide 13

3 components of the self-image

Slide 14

Slide 15

Images of your “I”

How does a person perceive himself at the moment? How does he think about the ideal of his “I”? What will this “I” become if my plans come true? How does this “I” look in the eyes of other people

Slide 16

Self-esteem

Real and ideal “I” Evaluation of the results of one’s own activities Evaluation by others

Slide 17

Self-esteem formula

SELF-ESTEEM = Success Aspirations HIGH AVERAGE LOW

Slide 18

Slide 19

“Psychological type in communication”

Rate the given statements on a scale from 0 to 4, then calculate the total. 1. I get close to people easily. 2. I have many acquaintances with whom I willingly meet. 3. I am a talkative person. 4. I feel at ease with strangers. 5. I would feel unpleasant if the possibility of communication disappeared for a long time. 6. When I need to know something, I prefer to ask rather than delve into books. 7. I manage to liven up boring company. 8. I speak quickly. 9. When I am away from people for a long time, I really want to talk to someone.

Slide 20

1-12 points. Introvert. Turned inward, he has difficulty making contact, and in company he can make everyone sad. Such a person is focused mainly on his own feelings, is reserved, shy, and prefers a book to communication. He is serious in decisions, does not trust emotions, loves order. He is pessimistic, and therefore is unlikely to make a good organizer. 13-24 points. Ambavert. He is characterized by calm, even relationships with people, and responsibility for his actions. These are the qualities that, as a rule, possess the best managers, in other words, everyone whose work requires the ability to communicate with people. 25-36 points. Extrovert. Talkative, sociable optimist, loves tricky questions and sharp jokes. Communication with anyone is not a problem for him, and here he is an excellent improviser. He does everything easily and naturally. But he treats his own obligations no less lightly, and therefore he can only be called a master of his word with irony. He is unrestrained because he does not consider it necessary to control emotions and feelings.

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Slide captions:

1. Knowledge of the world. 2. What is self-awareness. 3. What are you capable of? 4. We learn to recognize and evaluate ourselves.

What questions do people ask most often? What it is? What is this for? Why? For what? Curious people EXPERIENCE the world

A person’s knowledge of himself Studying himself as a Part of nature, identifying his biological characteristics and needs Understanding himself as a Part of society, a group (awareness of his spiritual and moral “I”) Studying his capabilities and abilities, searching for the type of activity that will best serve him correspond

COGNITION is a process of mental activity aimed at obtaining new knowledge about the world around us.

Two sides of knowledge SUBJECT Man Society OBJECT Subject World Man

How does a person experience the world?

Sensual Through the senses: - sensations, - perception (a holistic image of an object arising under the influence of the senses) - representation (a generalized image preserved and reproduced in consciousness without immediate effect.) Rational Concept - a thought that affirms the general properties of an object Judgment - a thought that affirms or denies Inference - conclusion Explores the world

Knowledge of the world is closely related to man’s knowledge of himself. KNOWING YOURSELF is a person’s study of his abilities (what I can do) and capabilities (what I can do), the search for activities that will correspond to them.

SELF-AWARENESS Know your strengths and weak sides Business prospects Relationships with people People’s attitude towards you

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